IN  MEMORIAL 
John  3T,vett 


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CYATHEA    ARBOREA,—  A    TREE    FERN, 
Scene  on  the  Chagres  River,  Central  America. 


FOURTEEN     W;EEKS 


IN 


BOTANY 


BY 

ALPHONSO    WOOD,    A.M., 

AUTHOR  OF  "THE  CLASS-BOOK  OF  BOTANY,"  "OBJECT  LESSONS  IN  BOTANY," 

"  PLANT    RECORD,"    ETC. 


AND 


J.    DORMAN    STEELE,    PH.D., 

AUTHOR    OF    THE    "  FOURTEEN-WEEKS   SERIES    IN    NATURAL    SCIENCE,' 


'  There  breathes,    for  those  who  understand, 
jl   voice  from  every  flower  and  tree ; 

jlnd  in  the  work  of  Nature's  hand 
Lies  Nature's  best  Philosophy." 


A.    S.    BARNES    &    COMPANY, 

NEW  YORK,  CHICAGO,  AND  NEW  ORLEANS. 
1879. 


WOOD'S    BOTANY. 


I.   OBJECT  LESSONS   IN    BOTANY, 

Pleasing  lessons  for  young  learners. 

II.    BOTANIST   AND    FLORIST, 

A  thorough  text-book,  comprehensive  and  practical. 

III.   THE   NEW   CLASS-BOOK, 

A  superb  and  exhaustive  compilation  and  encyclopedia  of  the  science. 


IV.   BOTANICAL  APPARATUS, 

A  complete  field  outfit,  consisting  of  Portable  Trunk,  Drying  Press, 
Trowel,  Lens,  Tweezers,  Etc.,  prepared  under  the  supervision  of 
Prof.  WOOD. 


V.  THE  STUDENT'S  PLANT  RECORD, 

A  book  of  blank  forms,  facilitating  the  analysis  of  plants,  and  recording 
the  results  of  such  analysis,  and  the  progress  of  the  student. 


***  The  Publishers  will  send  either  of  above,  postage  or  freight  prepaid,  on  receipt 
of  price. 


Copyright,  1879,  by  A.  S.  Barnes  &>  Co. 


PREFACE. 


HE  plan  of  this  work  differs  from  that  of 
the  ordinary  Botany.  The  method  pur- 
sued is  to  introduce  the  pupil  at  once  to 
the  study  of  the  plant  itself,  by  means  of 
elaborate  illustrations,  and  living  speci- 
mens. 

The  parts  and  functions,  together  with 
the  generic  and  specific  characters  of  each  plant,  are 
pointed  out  and  described.'  The  thing  being  seen,  is 
then  named.  No  new  term  is  introduced  until  a 
necessity  arises  for  its  use.  About  one  hundred  rep- 
resentative plants  are  thus  explained.  The  work  may 
therefore  be  considered  as  a  limited  Flora.  But  it  is 
much  more.  Through  an  acquaintance  with  these 
representative  plants,  the  pupil  is  gradually  led  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  Botany.  In  the  com- 
mon treatise  he  is  told  the  general  law  and  then  given 
illustrations ;  in  this,  he  is  shown  the  instances,  and 
thence  conducted  to  the  broad  truth  of  Nature. 

The  selection  of  plants  for  analysis  has  been  deter- 
mined by  the  following  considerations  :  (  i.)  The  plant 
should  be  common  throughout  the  country  and  hence 
accessible  to  every  learner;  (2.)  It  should  flower 

541759 


VI  PREFACE. 

in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  that  being  the  season 
when  the  study  is  generally  pursued  in  our  schools ; 
(3.)  It  should  have  conspicuous  parts,  at  least  the 
earlier  ones,  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  a  begin- 
ner ;  ( 4.)  It  should  belong  to  one  of  the  more  impor- 
tant Orders,  as  neither  the  limits  of  the  book  nor  the 
requirements  of  the  plan  adopted  would  admit  the 
study  of  them  all ;  finally,  the  selection  was  often  influ- 
enced by  some  intrinsic  feature  which  fitted  the  plant 
to  illustrate  a  special  principle  in  vegetable  life,  as 
sleep,  irritability,  cross-fertilization. 

This  work  is  merely  an  introduction,  conducting 
the  pupil  across  the  gateway  only.  Yet  it  is  not  de- 
signed for  infants ;  the  rather  for  learners  capable  of 
thought  and  reason.  To  all  such  it  offers  a  helping 
hand,  seeking  to  smooth  their  path  and  to  awaken 
such  an  interest  in  the  subject  as  will  induce  them  to 
pursue  their  investigations  in  more  advanced  books 
and  in  the  broader  field  of  Nature  itself. 

The  illustrations  in  this  work  are  nearly  all  from 
original  designs  prepared  by  Mr.  Sprague,  "  the  most 
accurate  of  living  botanical  artists,"  and  Mr.  Emerton, 
designer  of  the  illustrations  in  Prof.  Eaton's  North 
American  Ferns. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


HENEVER  possible  the  plant  described 
in  the  lesson  should  be  in  the  pupil's 
hand  for  examination.  This  is  the  very 
life  of  the  recitation.  A  constant  sup- 
ply of  specimens  should  therefore  be 
secured  for  this  purpose.  Let  them  be 
sought  a  day  in  advance  and  in  the  order  of  the  book. 
The  arrangement  may,  however,  be  changed  when 
necessary  to  accommodate  the  collector's  convenience. 
Should  any  terms  then  arise  not  already  explained, 
their  meaning  can  always  be  found  by  reference  to 
the  Glossary  at  the  close  of  the  book.  After  a  few 
lessons  have  been  thoroughly  understood,  the  pupil 
need  no  longer  confine  his  attention  to  the  few  plants 
treated  in  the  text.  He  can  readily  repeat  the  pro- 
cess of  analysis  on  any  specimen  he  is  able  to  secure. 
He  should,  however,  be  admonished  that  this  will 
lead  to  desultory  habits  of  study  unless  he  completes 
every  analysis  which  he  begins,  and  records  the 
result,  in  his  ever-present  memorandum  book.  The 
strictest  care  should  be  observed  in  completing  the 
Tablets  of  this  work  or  of  the  Plant  Record.  They 


viii  SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

should  be  carefully  and  neatly  filled  up  from  notes 
previously  arranged,  and  adjusted  in  every  word  and 
sentence,  so  that  there  may  be  no  erasures  and  no 
interlining,  and  the  Record  may  represent  in  every 
particular  the  pupil's  best  work.  Blank  forms  should 
be  drawn  on  the  blackboard  at  every  recitation,  and 
pupils  be  required  to  complete  them,  subject  to  the 
criticism  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  class  as  to  analysis, 
expression,  style,  spelling,  punctuation,  etc. 

A  good  microscope  is  essential  to  satisfactory 
botanical  work.  Small  hand  magnifiers  for  the  use 
of  the  pupils  and  a  larger  table  instrument  for  the 
teacher,  can  be  procured  at  a  slight  expense,  of  the 
publishers  of  this  book,  Messrs.  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co., 
in  and  113  William  St.,  New  York. 

The  course  of  investigation  marked  out  in  these 
lessons  is  such  that  while  it  unfolds  the  general  laws 
of  plant-structure  and  plant-life,  it  also  leads  to  that 
special  knowledge  of  the  plant  itself  which  prepares 
one  to  determine,  by  the  use  of  analytical  tables,  its 
name  and  place  in  the  Vegetable  System.  Hence  a 
Descriptive  Flora  with  tables  for  analysis  is  the 
proper  sequel  or  companion  of  this  treatise.  Such 
a  Flora  can  be  obtained  from  the  Publishers  of  this 
book.  With  its  aid  the  student  can  trace  any  unknown 
plant  which  he  examines  to  its  Order  and  Name  as 
readily  as  one  turns  to  a  word  in  a  Dictionary. 

A  system  of  questions  for  study  or  review,  gener- 
ally applicable  to  all  plants,  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I.  PIGEON-WHEAT  Moss—  Polytrichum.    The  Analysis.    Cap- 
sule.      Operculura.       Calyptra.       Peristome.       Spores. 
Flowers.    The  Flowerless  Plants.     How  the  Moss  grows.     13 
II.    THE  APPLE  Moss— Bartramia.      The  double  peristome. 

Fugacious  calyptra.     Cellular  structure.     THE  Musci.     17 

III.  THE  POLTPOD  FERN — Polypodium.    The  rhizome.    Frond. 

Sporangia.  Spores.  Forked  venation.  How  the  Fern  grows.    20 

IV.  THE    OSMUND    FERNS — Osmunda.      The  vernation.    The 

species.      THE    ORDER    FELICES.      Tree    Ferns.      THE 
CRYPTOGAMIA.     The  uses  of  Ferns.     The   Climbing 

Fern.     The  Brake.    The  pioneer  vegetation 24 

V.  THE  DOGTOOTH  VIOLET — Erythronium.  The  two  Regions. 
The  bulb.  Leaf.  Venation.  The  Calyx.  Corolla.  Sta- 
mens. Pistils.  The  fruit.  Seeds.  Pollen.  The  province 

ENDOGENS.    THE  PHENOGAMIA 29 

VI.  THE  TULIP — Tulipa.      The  tunicated  bulb;   its  contents. 

The  flower.    Varieties.     The  Tulip  mania  in  Holland 35 

VII.    THE  SPRING  BEAUTY— Claytonia.  Tubers.   A  raceme.  The 
petals  and  their  colored  lines.     Opposing  stamens.     The 
seed  and  its  albumen.   ^Estivation.   Our  two  species.   The 
PORTULACACE^E.  The  Portulacas.  The  province  EXOGENS.    39 
VIII.  THE  EARLY  CROWFOOT — Ranunculus.     Fasciculate  roots. 
Perennial  herbs.     The  nectary.     Polyandrous  and  h*y- 
pogynous  stamens.     The  simple  fruit — distinct  carpels.    46 
IX.  BULBOUS  CROWFOOT — Ranunculus.    An  inaxial  root.    The 

corm.    Reflexed  sepals  ;  economy.     Plan  of  the  flower. .     50 
X.  THE  LIVERLEAF — Hepatica.     Crown-stem.     Palmate  vena- 
tion.   Involucre.    Apetalous  flowers.     Anatropous  seeds.     54 
XL  RUE  ANEMONE — Anemone.    Tuberous  root.     Umbel.    Com- 
pound leaves.    Distinctness  of  organs.    Absence  of  honey.    58 
XII.  WOOD    ANEMONE — Anemone.      Creeping   root;    rhizome. 

Solitary  inflorescence.    Species.    Order  RANUNCULACE^:.    60 

XIII.  BLOODEOOT — Sanguinaria.      Rhizome.      Juice.      Caducous 

sepals.    Parietal  placentae.     Dicotyledonous  embryo 64 

XIV.  THE    POPPY— Papaver.      An  annual   herb.      The  species. 

Order  PAPAVERACE^.    The    California  Poppy.    Celan- 
dine.    Use  and  culture  of  Opium 68 

XV.  THE  VIOLETS — Viola.  A  cucullate  leaf.  Resupinate,  ir- 
regular flowers.  Adnate  anthers.  Cleistogene  flowers. 
Economy  in  pollen 71 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XVI.  THE  GARDEN  VIOLET — Viola  tricolor.  Lyrate-pinnatifid 

stipules.  Auriculate  sepals.  Order  VIOLACE^E.  Species.     75 

XVII.  CHICKWEED — Stellaria.  Nodes.  Internodes.  Centrifu- 
gal inflorescence.  Bifid  petals.  Free  central  placenta.  78 

XVIII.  THE  PINK— Diantlms.  Caudex.  Caulis.  The  Calyx  as 
a  flower-cup.  Proterandrous  flowers.  Teratology. 
Order  CARYOPHYLLACE.E 80 

XIX.  THE  WILD  GERANIUM.  Nodes.  Internodes.  Stipules.  Reg- 
ma.  Carpophore.  Folded  cotyledons.  Herb  Robert.  83 

XX.  THE  HORSE-SHOE  GERANIUM — Pelargonium.  The  Spur.     8G 

XXI.  YELLOW  WOOD  SORREL— Oxalis.  Leaf  trifoliate.  Leaf- 
let obcordate.  The  leaf -axils.  Monadelphous  stamens. 
Contorted  aestivation.  Sleep  of  plants.  The  Order. ...  89 

XXII.  JEWEL  WEED — Impatiens.  Corolla  irregular  and  spurred. 

Irritable  fruit.    Contrivances  for  scattering  seeds 93 

XXIII.  NASTURTIAN — Tropaeolum.     Peltate   leaves.     Spurred 

sepal.    Unguiculate  petals.    The  order  GERANIACE^E.    95 

XXIV.  SHEPHERD'S  PURSE — Capsella.     Leaves  amplexicaul. 

Flowers  cruciform,  tetradynamous.     A  silicle 89 

XXV.  THE  TOOTHROOT  CRESS — Cardamine.  Asilique.  Cotyle- 
dons accumbent — incumbent.     Order  CRUCIFER.E ...   101 
XXVI.  STRAWBERRY — Fragaria.  Scape.  Cyme.  Perigynous  sta- 
mens. Strawberry  fruit.  Quincuncial  estivation.  Hairs.  104 

XXVII.  THE  APPLE  TREE— Pyrus.  Trunk.  Wood.  Medullary 
rays.  Annual  layers.  Food  of  plants.  Circulation  of  the 
sap.  Ovary  adherent.  Fruit  a  pome.  Seed.  Germination.  107 

XXVIII.  THE  ROSE— Rosa.  History.  The  Prickles.  Odd-pin- 
nate leaves.  Ovary  inferior.  Seed  suspended.  The 
Hip.  The  Double  Rose.  The  order  ROSACES.  Peach, 

Quince,  Blackberry,  Spirea,  etc 112 

XXIX.  THE  PEA— Pisum.  Tendrils,  their  action.  Papiliona- 
ceous flower.  Diadelphous  stamens.  Legume 117 

XXX.  THE  LOCUST  TREE— Robinia.  Stipular  spines.  Sensi- 
tiveness. The  Sensitive  Plant.  The  Moving  Plant. 
The  order  LEGUMINOS.E 121 

XXXI.  THE  EVENING  PRIMROSE — OZnothera.  Leaves  spirally 
arranged.  Root  biennial.  Calyx  adherent,  tubular. 

Flowers  nocturnal . .    125 

XXXII.  LADY'S  EARDROPS— Fuchsia.      Angular  pollen  grains. 

Hybridization.    Order  ONAGRACE^E.     Zauschneria. . .  128 

XXXIII.  SWEET  CICELY— Osmorhiza.     The  axial  root.     Decom- 

pound leaves.     Sheathing  petioles.     Compound  um- 
bel.   Involucels.    The  cremocarp.    Carpophore 131 

XXXIV.  GOLDEN  ALEXANDERS — Carum.    Ovary  inferior.    Ribs 

and  vitee  of  the  fruit.     Oil  tubes.     Action  of  light. 
The  order  UMBELLIFER^E 134 


CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XXXV.  THE  MOUSE-EAR  EVERLASTING — Antennaria.  Stolons. 
Dio3cious  plants.  Heads  of  florets.  Receptacle.  In- 
volucre. Pappus  clubby.  Cypsela 137 

XXXVI.  ROBIN'S  PLANTAIN— Erigeron.    Heads  radiate.    Florets 

of  the  ray.    Florets  of  the  disk.     Ligul ate  corolla. .  140 

XXXVII.  THE  DANDELION— Taraxacum.  Runcinate  leaves.  Ra- 
diant, homogamous  heads.  Chaff.  Syngenecious 
anthers.  The  order  COMPOSITE.  Chickory,  Camo- 
mile, Aster.  Chrysanthemum.  Solidago 143 

XXXVIII.  THE  CHECKERBERRY — Gaultheria.     Urceolate  corolla. 

Curious  fruit.    The  Black  Checkerberry 147 

XXXIX.  THE  PYROLAS.    Anthers  inverted  in  bud  ;  opening  by 

pores.    The  six  species 150 

XL.  PRINCE'S  PINE— Chimaphila.     Horned  anthers 152 

XLI.  THE  KALMIAS.  Elastic  stamens.  Pollenization.  The 
order  ERICACEAE.  The  Heaths.  Blueberries.  Cranber- 
ries. Azalias.  May-flower 155 

XLII.  THE  PITCHER  PLANT— Sarracenia.  Ascidia.  Order  SAR- 

RACENIACE^E.   Carnivorous  Plants.  Venus'  Flytrap . .   158 
XLIII.  THE    AMERICAN    COWSLIP— Dodecathron.      Opposing 

stamens.     Dimorphism.     Free  central  placenta 161 

XLIV.  CHICK  WINTERGREEN — Trientalis.     7-parted  flowers ...   164 
XLV.  THE   LOOSESTRIFES — Lysimachia.     Verticillate  leaves. 
Monadelphous  stamens.  Opposing  stamens  explained. 
Order  PRIMULACE^E.  Cyclamen.  Anagallis.  Primrose.  165 
XL VI.  THE  SPEEDWELLS — Veronica.    Why  so  called.   A  two- 
celled  capsule.     Exserted  stamens.    The  species  ....  170 
XL VII.  TOAD  FLAX — Linaria.    Pentamerous  flowers.  Personate 
corolla.   The  spur, — what  can  reach  its  honey.   Order 

SCROPHULACE^E.     Digitalis.     Pentstemon 173 

XL VIII.  THE  GROUND  IVY— Nepeta.  Naturalized  plants.  Bi- 
labiate corolla.  Halved  anthers.  Seeds  apparently 

naked.    The  Catmint 176 

XLIX.  BLUE  CURLS — Brunella.  Cuspidate  bracts.  Hairs  jointed. 
The  lip  a  doorstep  for  bees.  Order  LABIATE.  Pep- 
permint. Oil  of  Spike.  Lavender 179 

L.  THE  MORNING  GLORY — Ipomcea.  Ephemeral  flowers. 
Supervolute  aestivation.  The  disk.  Use  of  pollen  ; 
— nectar.  Septifragal  dehiscence.  Albumen.  Vital- 
ity of  seed.  The  bud.  CONVOLVULACE^E 182 

LI.  ROCK  MAPLE — Acer.    Tree  picturesque.    Theory  of  leaf- 

f  orms.  Autumnal  colors.  Maple  sugar.   Other  Maples.  188 

LII.  THE  HORSE  CHESTNUT — JEsculus.  History.  Phyllo- 
taxy.  Digitate  leaves.  Suppression  of  ovules.  The 

SAPINDACE.E.     The  Soapberry  tree 192 

LIII.  THE  SILK  GRASS — Asclepias.  Pollinia.  Corona,  hoods 
and  horns.  Cross-fertilization.  The  ASCLEPIADACE^E. 
The  Cow  tree.  Carrionflower 195 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  PAGE 

LIV.  SPOTTED   KNOTWOOD— Polygonum.      Ochre*.    Apeta- 
lous  flowers.      An  achenium.      Other  species.     The 
nectar  defended  from  ants  •   The  POLYGONACE^E  ....  199 
LV.  THE  SPURGES — Euphorbia.     A  monandrous  flower.     A 
glandular  involucre.     Poisonous  juice.     The  EUPHOR- 
BIA CE^E.     Tapioca.      Caoutchouc ......     204 

LVI.  THE  WHITE  OAK— Quercus.  Aments.  Wind-fertiliza- 
tion. Acorns.  Germination.  History.  Straight- 
veined  leaves.  The  CUPULIFER^E.  The  value  of 

Mast.     Oak  timber.     Nut-galls 207 

LVII.  THE  WHITE    PINE — Pinus.      Acerous  leaves.      Triple 
pollen  grains.      Biennial   fruit.      The  cone.      Naked 

seeds.     Root  fences.     Other  species 214 

LVIII.  THE  HEMLOCK — Abies.     Excurrent  trunk.    The  CONIF- 
ERS.    Pitted  cells.      The  Douglass  Fir.      The  Giant 

Cedars.     Turpentine 218 

LIX.  THE  PALMETTO — Sabal.  Tree  with  one  bud.  Caudex. 
The  endogenous  structure.  Other  Palms.  Germi- 
nation of  the  Cocoanut.  The  PALMACE^E.  Date  Palm. 

Sago.     Vegetable  Ivory.     Palm  oil 223 

LX.  JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT — Arissema.     The  spadix  and  spathe. 

Golden  Club.     Calla.     The  ARACES.     Sweet  Flag. ...  229 
LXI.  THE  SHOWY  ORCHIS — An   orchidaceous  perianth.     Gy- 
nandrous    stamens.      Pollinia.      How    fertilized.      A 

walking  plant 233 

LXII.  ORCHIS  PSYCHODES.    O.  orbiculata.    Lady's  Slipper.    The 

ORCHID  ACES.     Mimicry  of  insects,  birds,  etc 237 

LXIII.  IRIS,  or  BLUE  FLAG.     Ensiform  leaves.    Pollenization. 

The  Fleur-de  lis  in  history 241 

LXIV.  BLUE-EYED  GRASS— Sisyrinchium.    The  IRIDACES 244 

LXV.  THE  TRILLIUMS.      Net-veined   endogens.     Wake-robin. 

The  Bath-flower.    Indian  Cucumber.    The  TRILLIACES.  246 
LXVI.  BELLWORT,  or  WILD  OATS — Uvularia.    Perfoliate  leaves. 

Loculicidal  pods.     U.  sessilifolia,  and  other  species  ..  254 
LXVII.  LILY-OF-THE- VALLEY — Convallaria.    Gamopetalous.  Ori- 
gin of  the  stem.     History.     Clintonia.    The  LILIACES.  254 
LXVIII.  THE  STAR-GRASS— Hypoxis.    Sagittate  anthers.   Species.  258 
LXIX.  THE  SEDGES.     GALINGALE — Cyperus.    The  umbels.  The 

naked  flowers.     The  spikes.    The  Rushes.    Achenium.  263 
LXX.  THE  SEDGES.  CAREX.  Triangular  culm.  Monoecious  spikes. 

Perigynium.     Glume.     The  CYPEHACES.     Papyrus. . .  265 
LXXI.  THE  GRASSES.      The  turf.      Culm.      Sheath.      Licrule. 
Poa  pratensis.    Wind-fertilization.    Blue  Grass.    Fowl 

Meadow 271 

LXXII.  ORCHARD  GRASS— Dactylis.     Secund  panicles.     Keeled 

glumes 274 

LXXIII.  SWEET  VEKNAL  GRASS — Anthoxanthum.  Germination 
of  the  Grasses.  The  order  GRAMINES.  The  cereals. 
Bamboo.  Hay — of  what  grasses  made 276 


BOTANY 


I.   PIGEON-WHEAT   MOSS. 

Description. — The  portrait  is  before  us  (p.  15).  We 
cannot  fail  to  recognize  a  little  rustic  friend  we  have  often 
met  in  our  country  rambles,  covering  the  dry  knolls  in 
pastures  among  rocks  and  stumps.*  Examining  this  plant 
as  a  whole,  we  see  that  it  is  a  mossy  herb,  erect,  3  to  8 
inches  high,  branched  at  the  base,  above  which  it  is  not 
branched,  but  simple,  as  the  botanists  say.  Coming  next  to 
study  the  plant  in  detail,  we  find  that  it  is  organized,  i.  e., 
made  of  cooperating  parts.  Five  of  these — the  root,  stem, 
leaf,  stalk,  and  fruit — are  readily  distinguished. 

Analysis.f — The  ffioot  is  the  base  of  the  plant.  It 
grows  in  the  ground,  and  is  the  part  first  formed.  Its  use 
is  to  hold  the  plant  in  its  place  and  to  take  up  nourish- 
ment from  the  soil.  There  are  numerous  small  fibers  or 
rootlets  branching  from  the  main  root  or  axis,  to  give  a 
broader  foothold  and  aid  in  absorbing  food.J 

The  Stem  (a  b)  springs  from  the  root.  It  is  upright, 
simple,  1  to  3  inches  high,  round  and  tapering,  or,  as  we 
may  hereafter  say,  terete. 

*  Specimens  of  this  plant  maybe  collected  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  drying 
they  will  lose  none  of  their  comeliness. 

t  Analysis.— Greek  ana,  each,  or  severally,  and  luein,  to  loosen  or  dissolve, 
means  to  consider  anything  in  its  different  parts  separately,  one  by  one. 

t  The  life-history  of  the  Moss  begins  in  a  mesh  of  green,  gossamer-like  threads  that 
spring  from  the  spore  which  serves  for  its  seed.  For  a  time,  5  to  20  days,  this  mat  slowly 
gathers  strength,  when  suddenly  on  one  of  the  crossings  a  tiny  bud  appears— a  whorl 
of  scaly  leaves.  Now  true  roots  creep  down  into  the  soil,  the  threads  drop  away,  the 
stem  ascends.  No  one  plants  the  Moss  ;  it  does  not  follow  the  track  of  man  in  his 
migrations  ;  yet  it  is  everywhere  present  to  greet  his  coming.  In  the  barren  sands, 
in  the  chinks  of  the  naked  rock,  wall,  or  pavement,  wherever  a  spore  may  find  a  lodg- 
ment, there  the  Moss  weaves  its  tiny  mesh,  and  grows  its  diminutive  forest. 


14:  PIGEON- WHEAT  MOSS. 


The  £eare$  are  green  or  brownish,  and  grow  mostly 
^fcfti&';.tKa;  ujpp<^.j>art  of  the  stem.  They  are  (1)  long- 
pointed,  and  shaped  somewhat  like  a  spear  or  lance,  only 
narrower,  approaching  the  form  of  a  line  — ;  hence 
they  are  said  to  be  linear-lanceolate.  The  edges  are  serru- 
late (Lat.  serrula,  a  little  saw). 

The  Stalfc  (b  c)  rises  from  the  top  of  the  stem  among 
the  leaves,  and  is  therefore  said  to  be  terminal;  and  as  it 
supports  the  fruit,  it  is  called  the  pedicel  (pediculus,  a  little 
foot).  It  is  erect,  usually  longer  than  the  stem,  smooth, 
brown,  thread-shaped  (filiform). 

The  Fruit  (c)  is  borne  aloft  on  the  pedicel.  It  is  the 
last  part  produced  by  the  plant,  the  chief  end  and  aim  of 
its  whole  life.  It  is  a  small  square  box  or  capsule  (7), 
covered  while  growing  by  a  hairy  cap  or  calyptra  (6). 
When  ripe,  the  calyptra  vanishes,  the  capsule  nods  (8),  and 
the  lid — operculum  (9)  at  the  top  opens,  revealing  within 
a  greenish  dust.  This  consists  of  a  multitude  of  tiny  grains 
or  spores,  soon  to  be  scattered  on  the  ground,  and  to  serve 
as  seeds.  After  the  operculum  has  fallen  off,  the  mouth 
(stoma)  remains  open,  and  is  seen  beautifully  bordered  by 
a  circlet  of  teeth.  This  is  called  the  peristome  (Gr.  peri, 
around,  stoma,  mouth).  With  a  microscope  we  can  see 
that  the  teeth  are  blunt  (10),  and  64  in  number.* 

Classification. — At  the  top  of  the  stem,  before  the  fruit 
arises,  we  may  often  find  a  group  of  organs  resembling  and 
indeed  serving  as  a  flower  (2).f  But  being  colorless  and 

*  In  other  kinds  of  Moss  the  number  of  the  teeth  is  4,  8,  16,  32— always  some 
power  of  2.  Sometimes  the  peristome  is  double,  the  inner  one  consisting  of  as  many 
little  hairs  (cilice.) 

t  In  Fig.  1  (2)  the  artist  has  delineated  a  male,  or  sterile  flower  of  Polytrichum 
(for  two  kinds  of  flowers  are  developed  by  this  Moss).  In  4  is  seen,  greatly  mag- 
nified, the  special  organs  (two  antheridia,  and  0,  o,  two  paraphyses)  of  the  sterile 
flower.  In  5,  also  greatly  magnified,  are  seen  the  two  pistilidia  of  a  fertile  flower, 
from  one  of  which  the  capsule  arises,  the  other  proving  abortive ;  3  is  one  of  the 
leaves  (sepals). 


FIG.  I.— Pigeon-Wheat  Moss,  Polytrichum  commune.  The  portrait  represents 
the  plant  in  nearly  full  size.  The  other  figures  are  dissections,  showing  the  various 
organs  magnified,  as  under  a  microscope  ;  2,  a  sterile  flower,  magnified. 


16 


PIGEON-WHEAT     MOSS. 


insignificant;  in  appearance,  it  is  easily  overlooked.  Hence 
,th£f  eav-ly  botanists*  called  this  and  all  the  Mosses,  Lichens, 
&c.,  Cryptogams  (=  Cryptogamia),  that  is,  plants  with  hid- 
den flowers,  or  more  familiarly,  the  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS. 

The  Name  given  to  this  plant  by  Linnaeus,*  the  founder 
of  the  science  of  Botany,  is  Polytrichum,  a  name  derived 
from  the  Greek  polys,  much,  thrix,  hair ;  on  account  of  its 
hairy  calyptra. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    PIGEON-WHEAT    MOSS. 


Parts, 
Members, 
Organs. 

DESCRIPTION. 

THE  PLANT. 

An  herb  5  to  8  inches  high,  with  leafy  verdure,  branched  at  base. 

ROOT. 

The.  basis  of  the  plant,  growing  downward  in  the  soil. 

Axis. 

Crooked,  diminishing  downward. 

FIBERS. 

Many,  short,  branching  from  the  axis. 

STEM. 

One  or  more  from  the  root,  erect,  terete,  1'  to  3',  leafy. 

PEDICEL. 

Terminal,  smooth,  brown,  thread-shaped,  long,  naked. 

LEAVES. 

Greenish,  linear-lanceolate,  'pointed,  crowded  above. 

FRUIT. 

Terminal,  erect  at  first,  finally  nodding. 

CALYPTRA. 

A  cap  of  matted  hairs,  pointed  at  top. 

CAPSULE. 

A  smatt  box,  generally  four-sided,  opening  atjtop. 

Operculum. 

The  Kd  of  the  capsule,  round,  pointed  in  centre. 

Peristome. 

The  fringe  of  the  mouth,  consisting  of  6k  teeth. 

SPORES. 

Greenish,  dust-like,  contained  in  the  capsule,  for  seeds. 

CLASSIFICATION.       The  Grand  Division,  CRYPTOGAMIA. 

The  Tribe,  MOSSES  or  MUSCI. 
Family  or  Genus,    Polytrichum. 

*  In  his  botanical  tours  in  Lapland,  Linnaeus  found  this  Moss  very  abundant,  and 
tells  us  that  in  his  hours  of  rest  he  often  made  it  his  couch  and  pillow. 


BAETEAMIA    POMIFOKMIS. 


17 


The  Record. — In  the  preceding  tablet  are  recorded  the 
principal  facts  we  have  now  learned  concerning  the  Pigeon- 
wheat  Moss. 

Review  of  the  Scientific  Terms  which  have  been  employed 
and  defined  in  this  lesson.  If  the  student  will  master  them  here,  they 
need  not  he  explained  hereafter.  Analysis.  Axis.  Calyptra.  Capsule. 
Cryptogamia.  Lanceolate.  Linear.  Operculum.  Organized.  Pedicel. 
Peristome.  Rootlet.  Simple.  Spores.  Stoma.  Terminal.  Terete. 


II.  THE  APPLE   MOSS. 

Description. — This  pretty  Moss  is  known  by  its  round, 
apple-shaped  capsules.  It  grows  in  large,  dense  tufts,  2'  or 
3'  (inches)  high,  of  a  light  or  bluish-green  color,  often  cov- 
ering the  ground  on  shady 
banks  or  in  open  woodlands. 

Analysis. — The  ffioot  is  a 
simple  axis,  clothed  with  mi- 
nute rootlets,  which  appear  like 
a  soft  brownish  down. 

The  Stems  are  densely 
crowded,  repeatedly  forking, 
or  dicJwtomous  (dividing  by 
pairs),  covered  and  concealed 
by  their  leaves. 

The  Leares  are  numerous 
and  crowded  on  the  stem  and 
branches.     They  are  narrower       FIG.  u .— Bartramia  pomtf6rmis. 
than  those  of  the  Polytrichum,  narrower  even  (proportion- 
ately) than  a  cobbler's  awl ;  hence  we  define  them  as  linear- 
subulate  (subula,  an  awl).* 

*  Viewed  under  a  strong  microscope,  the  leaf  of  this  Moss,  and  indeed  every  other 
part  of  it,  appears  a  tissue  of  cells  all  of  one  shape  and  size  throughout — polygons 
somewhat  longer  than  wide.  In  other  words,  the  Moss  is  wholly  composed  of  cellular 
tissue. 


18  THE    APPLE    MOSS. 

The  Sta2fc  or  pedicel  is  terminal  or  nearly  so,  erect,  6" 
to  10"  (seconds  =  lines  or  twelfths  of  an  inch)  high,  slender, 
yellowish,  much  ,shorter  than  the  stem. 

The  JPrtlit  or  capsule  (1)  is  slightly  nodding,  globular 
when  fresh,  oval  and  showing  many  ribs  or  furrows  when 
dry  (2).  The  cap  or  calyptra  (1)  is  small,  smooth,  split 
on  one  side,  and  soon  vanishing,  or  fugacious  (fugere,  to 
flee  away).  The  lid  or  operculum  is  very  small,  somewhat 
conical.  Under  a  microscope  the  peristome  shows  an  outer 
row  of  16  teeth,  three  of  them  being  seen  in  the  figure  (3). 
There  is  also  an  inner  row  of  as  many  hairs  (dim). 

The  Name  by  which  this  Moss  is  known  in  science  is 
Bartramia.  It  was  conferred  by  Linnaeus,  A.  D.  1750,  in 
honor  of  John  Bartram,*  of  Philadelphia.  But  this,  how- 
ever, is  the  title  of  a  family  or  genus,  including  several 
kinds  or  species.  A  second  name  is  therefore  added  to 
designate  the  species, f  viz.,  Bartramia  pomiformis  (Latin, 
pomum,  apple  ;  forma,  form).  J 

The  Record. — Following  the  example  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding lesson,  the  student  will  now  fill  the  blanks  in  the 
annexed  tablet.  The  descriptions  are  to  be  drawn  from 
the  text  or  from  fresh  observations  of  the  plant  (p.  17). 
See  directions  in  "  Suggestions  to  Teachers,"  p.  6. 

The  Order. — The  Mosses  are  among  the  higher  orders 
of  the  cryptogams.  They  have  proper  stems  and  green 

*  Bartram  was  a  Pennsylvania  farmer,  said  by  Linnaeus  to  be  the  greatest  natural 
botanist  then  living.  He  traveled  through  the  forests  which  at  that  early  day  covered 
so  large  a  part  of  our  country,  collected  plants  and  established  in  Philadelphia  the 
first  Botanic  Garden  in  America. 

t  The  same  is  true  of  our  Polytrichum,  whose  specific  name  is  Polytrichum  com- 
mune (-  common),  or  P.  commtine. 

$  Many  object  to  scientific  names  in  an  elementary  book.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered,  however,  that  they  are  brief,  exact,  and  universal ;  i.  e.,  they  are  used  in  all 
scientific  books  and  are  known  to  all  nations.  The  common  names  are  local,  and 
vary  not  only  in  different  countries,  but  in  different  parts  of  the  same  country.  In 
this  work  the  English  name  is  given  first,  then  the  classical  or  scientific.  The 
student  should  know  both,  but  in  conversation  may  use  either. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  APPLE   MOSS. 


19 


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20  THE    POLYPOD    FEBl*. 

leaves,  while  the  Moulds,  Mushrooms  and  Lichens  have 
neither.  Not  less  than  2000  species  have  been  described, 
chiefly  inhabiting  the  cool  and  rocky  regions  of  the  Earth. 
On  the  cinders  of  Mt.  Hood  they  form  the  first  verdant 
specks  of  vegetation,  and  the  cliffs  of  Mt.  Washington  are 
already  green  with  mossy  tufts  and  beds.  Cold  swamps  are 
everywhere  being  filled  with  Sphagnum  and  other  Mosses, 
whose  remains  accumulate  and  are,  in  time,  condensed  to 
peat — a  valuable  fuel  in  some  countries  where  wood  and 
coal  are  scarce. 

Review  of  the  Scientific  Terms  used  in  this  lesson :  Cilia. 
Dichotomous.  Fugacious.  Subulate.  Species. 

III.  THE   POLYPOD   FERN. 

Description. — This  comely  Fern  is  found  everywhere  in 
old  forests,  growing  on  stony  steeps,  and  covering  the  rocks 
and  boulders  with  a  matted  turf  composed  of  their  tangled 
stems  and  roots. 

Analysis. — We  may  conveniently  divide  this  plant  into 
two  portions  or  regions ;  first,  that  of  the  stem  and  root 
under  ground  (subterranean);  second,  that  of  the  leaf  and 
fruit  above  ground  (aerial).  The  analysis  will  then  proceed 
as  before. 

The  ffioot  consists  of  a  number  of  thread-like  or  hair- 
like  fibers,  branching  into  tiny  fibrils,  growing  all  along  the 
stem. 

The  Stem  creeps  about  in  the  soil.  It  is  many-branched, 
and  covered  with  soft,  narrow  scales.  As  it  never  rises  into 
the  air  it  is  properly  a  root-stock  or  rhizome.* 

*  Plants  with  rhizomes  are  not  uncommon.  They  are  always  perennial,  i.e.,  living 
from  year  to  year,  and  otherwise  noted  for  their  strong  vitality.  Those  which  have 
rhizomes  long,  slender,  branching,  are  inclined  to  take  exclusive  possession  of  the 
soil,  and  so  become  in  fields  and  gardens  troublesome  weeds.  Such  is  the  Polypod 
in  Europe.  On  the  contrary,  in  sandy  sea-shores  and  dykes  they  are  useful,  binding 
the  soil  into  a  firm  turf  resisting  the  washing  of  the  waves.  See  XTTI  and  LXV, 


POLYPODIUM. 


The  Z<eaf  is  all  of  the  plant  that  is  seen  while  growing. 
It  is  more  than  a  mere  leaf,  since  it  bears  the  fruit  as  well 
as  the  foliage.  Being  thus  a  combination 
of  stalk  and  leaf,  it  is  called  the  frond 
(Lat.  from,  a  leafy  branch).  It  stands 
inclined  so  as  to  present  an  upper  and  an 
under  surface,  both  being  green.  At  the 
base  its  stalk  is  called  the  stipe.  Its  mar- 
gins are  deeply  cleft  in  numerous  segments 
termed  pinna  (wings).  Hence  the  frond 
is  said  to  be  pinnatifid  or  wing-cleft. 

The  Veins  or  ribs  demand  a  careful 
study.  There  are  three  kinds.  The  mid- 
vein  is  the  largest ;  it  is  the  continuation 
of  the  stipe  from  the  base  of  the  frond  to 


FIG.  Ill— Polypddium  vulgare  :  1,  a  fruit-bearing  vein  ;  2,  fruit-cluster ;  3,  a  side 
view  ;  4,  a  capsule  open  ;  5,  a  spore,  greatly  magnified. 

its  end  or  apex :  2d,  the  veinlets  branch  from  the  midvein 
and  pass  through  the  middle  of  each  of  the  pinnae  :  3d,  the 
veinulets  branch  from  the  veinlets,  then  divide  or  fork,  and 


22      '  THE    POLYPOD    FERN. 

so  end  either  in  the  edge  (margin)  of  the  frond,  or  in  a 
fruit-cluster  (2).  This  kind  of  veining  (venation)  in  the 
larger  veins  is  styled  pinni-veined,  or  feather-veined,  and 
that  in  the  veinulets— -fork-veined. 

The  Fruit  is  formed  at  the  end  of  veinulets  (1),  on  the 
under  surface  (the  back)  of  the  frond.*  It  consists  of 
numerous  round,  reddish  brown,  regularly  arranged  patches 
called  sori  (sorus,  plur.  sori,  a  heap).  Under  the  microscope 
these  heaps  (2)  are  found  to  be  composed  of  numerous 
roundish  vessels  (sporangia),  each  on  a  pedicel  (3)  and 
filled  with  spores.  The  contrivance  for  opening  these 
spore  cases  is  very  curious.  Each  one  is  clasped  by  an 
elastic,  vertical  ring.  When  ripe  and  dry,  the  ring  con- 
tracts, breaks  asunder,  tears  open  the  cell  (4),  and  throws 
the  spores  (5)  to  a  distance. f 

Classification. — No  flower  is  ever  seen  on  this  or  any 
other  Fern.J  Therefore  they  are  classed  with  the  Mosses 
in  the  subkingdom  CKYPTOGAMIA,  or  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS. 

The  Name. — Polypod  or  Polypody  is  a  contraction  of 

*  The  spores  of  the  brake  are  hidden  under  the  margin  of  the  leaves,  so  that 
anciently  it  was  thought  that  the  Fern  bears  no  seed.  Later  it  was  believed  that  the 
fern-seed  was  visible  only  on  St.  John's  Eve,  just  at  the  moment  when  the  saint  was 
born : 

"But  on  St.  John's  mysterious  night, 

Sacred  to  many  a  wizard  spell, 
The  hour  when  first  to  human  eight 

Confest,  the  mystic  fern-seed  fell." 

The  superstitious  belief  that  he  who  could  at  that  hour  get  some  of  the  fern-seed, 
became  invisible,  is  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  old  poets.  Shakespeare  says  : 

"  We  have  the  receipt  of  fern-seed ;  we  walk  invisible." 

+  The  spores  of  the  Ferns  are  numerous.  Let  the  student  calculate  them  in  one  of 
these  fronds.  Professor  Lindley  observes  of  the  Hart's-tongue  (Scolopendrium),  a 
small  Fern,  that  each  frond  produces  about  80  fruit-clusters  (sori),  with  an  average  of 
about  4500  spore-cases  in  each  cluster,  and  in  each  spore  case  50  spores.  The  num- 
ber of  spores  on  each  frond  would  then  be  80  x  4500  x  50  =  18,000,000.  If  all  should 
grow,  they  would  in  a  few  years  cover  the  whole  continent. 

\  In  germination,  the  spore  of  the  Fern  first  develops  into  a  green  body  resem- 
bling a  Liverwort,  called  the  prothattus.  On  this  prothallus  are  certain  little  organs 
analogous  to  stamens  and  pistils,  by  which  a  second  set  of  spores  is  generated,  in 
advance  of  the  true  Fern.  Thus  in  the  Fern,  as  in  some  insects,  there  is  an  alternate 
generation;  it  is  first  a  Liverwort,  then  a  Fern.  (See  Zoology,  p.  220,  Aphidae.) 


POLYPODIUM. 


the  Latin  name,  Polypodium  (Gr.  polys,  many,  poda,  feet), 
given  it  by  Linnaeus  in  allusion  to  its  numerous  creeping 
underground  stems.  As  there  are  many  species,  ours  is 
named  P.  vulgdre,  the  Common  Polypod. 

Scientific  Terms  defined  in  this  lesson  :  Aerial.  Fibrils.  Fork- 
veined.  Frond.  Midvein.  Pinna  (plur.  pinnae).  Pinnatifid.  Pinni- 
veined.  Prothallus.  Rhizome.  Root-stock.  Sorus  (plur.  sori).  Spo- 
rangium (plur.  sporangia).  Stipe.  Subterranean.  Veinlet.  Veinulet. 
Venation. 

ANALYSIS   OF  THE   POLYPOD   FERN". 


Regions, 
Parts, 
Members, 
Organs. 

DESCRIPTION. 

SUBTERR  A  NE  AN. 

Parts  under  ground. 

ROOT. 

Many  thread-like  fibers  and  hair-like  fibrils. 

STEM. 

.  Creeping,  branching,  scaly. 

AERIAL. 

Parts  above  ground. 

FROND. 

Pinnatifid,  with  oblong  pinnae,,  8'  high. 

Stipe. 

Green,  naked  (not  scaly'). 

Veins. 

The  frame-work. 

Midvein. 

Largest  vein,  from  base  to  apex. 

Veinlets. 

One  in  the  midst  of  each  lobe,  or  pinna. 

Veinulets. 

Forked,  bearing  the  fruit. 

FRUIT. 

On  the  back  of  the  frond. 

Sori. 

Naked,  rounded. 

Sporangia. 

Roundish,  stalked,  with  an  elastic  ring. 

Spores. 

Yellow,  dust-like  particles,  as  seeds. 

CLASSIFICATION.-Subkingdom,  CRYPTOGAMIA. 
Tribe,  The  FERNS. 
NAME.—  Genus,  Polypodium  ;  Species,  P.  mtlgare. 

*. 

24  THE    OSMUKD    FEENS. 


IV.  THE  OSMUND   FERNS. 

That  tall  Fern 

So  stately,  of  the  queen  Osmunda  named : 
Plant  lovelier,  in  its  own  retired  abode 
On  Grasmere^s  beach,  than  Naiad  by  the  side 
Of  Grecian  brook.  WORDSWORTH. 

Description. — Excursions  in  the  old  mossy  damp  woods, 
in  the  month  of  May,  are  generally  rewarded  by  a  rich  dis- 
play of  these  large,  majestic  Ferns  already  in  fruit.  They 
grow  in  circular  clumps  springing  from  a  .thick  subterra- 
nean stem,  or  root-stock.  As  in  the  Polypods,  the  fronds 
constitute  the  aerial  region.  They  are  very  smooth,  often 
3-5  feet  in  height,  and  a  yard  in  width. 

Clayton's  Osmunda,  shown  in  the  cuts,  bearing  its  fruit 
in  the  middle  of  the  frond,  is  earliest  ripe,  and  therefore 
the  first  to  be  analyzed. 

Analysis. — The  Root  is  of  many  fibers,  with  branches 
innumerable,  short,  spreading  at  right  angles  (divqfr.icate), 
filling  the  soil. 

The  Stem  is  wholly  subterranean,  a  thick  blackish  rhi- 
zome of  loose  texture  and  partly  woody,  living  many  years 
(perennial). 

The  Frond  is  twice  divided;  first  into  many  distinct 
pinnae,  arranged  in  pairs  along  the  lengthened  stipe  or 
rachis  (Gr.  back-bone) ;  then  each  pinna  is  cut  into  oblong 
lobes  or  segments.  This  twofold  division  is  termed  pinnate- 
pinnatifid  or  Mpinnatifid. 

The  venation,  like  that  of  Polypod,  is  pinni-veined  and 
fork-veined  (2). 

Yernalion. — When  starting  from  the  ground  in  early 
spring,  each  frond  is  a  coil  rolled  from  the  top  inward  and 
downward,  gradually  unfolding,  scroll-like,  as  it  grows  (5). 


FIG.  IV.  Osmfinda  Claytoniana,  with  five  dissections  ;  2,  a  segment  or  lobe,  showing 
the  forked  venation  ;  3,  clusters  of  spore-cases  (enlarged) ;  4,  one  of  the  spore-cases 
(capsules)  still  further  magnified  ;  5,  young  frond,  showing  its  mode  of  vernation. 

NOTE.— Specific  names  are  generally  adjectives,  and  should  never  begin  with  a 
capital  letter,  except  (1)  when  the  name  is  derived  from  a  person  or  a  country,  as 
O.  Claytoniana,  or  Erythrdnium  Americanum  ;  and  (2)  when  it  is  a  noun,  as  Dode- 
catheon  Meadia. 


26  THE    OSMUND    PEEKS. 

This  mode  of  bud-folding*  is  termed  circinate  (Lat.  circi- 
nus9  a  compass). 

The  Fruit  is  densely  clustered  on  some  of  the  middle 
pinnae,  which  contract  their  leaf-portion  to  a  mere  green 
edge.  The  sporangia  or  spore-cases  open  lengthwise  into 
two  halves  or  valves,  containing  the  dust-like  spores. 

The  Name  of  this  noble  genus  of  Ferns  is  Osmtinda, 
from  Osmunder,  one  of  the  titles  of  the  Celtic  Thor,  god 
of  thunder,  whence  we  also  derive  the  word  Thursday 
(Thor's-day).  The  species  just  analyzed  is  0.  Claytoniana, 
named  in  honor  of  John  Clayton,  one  of  our  earliest 
botanists. 

0.  cinnamomea,  the  Cinnamon  Fern,  has  some  of  the 
central  fronds  of  each  clump  wholly  fertile  and  condensed 
into  fruit,  tall  cinnamon-colored  clusters,  looking  like  flames 
— whence  they  are  often  called  the  Flaming  Fern. 

0.  regdlis,  Eoyal  Osmund,  our  tallest  Fern,  with  its 
fronds  separated  into  innumerable  distinct  leaflets,  and  its 
fruit  all  terminal,  is  celebrated  for  its  regal  beauty,  f 

The  Order. — Ferns  constitute  one  of  the  tribes  or 
orders  of  the  Cryptogams,  named  in  science  FILICES.  They 
grow  in  all  countries,  but  are  most  abundant  in  New 
Zealand  and  the  tropical  islands,  where  the  climate  is  warm 
and  damp.  Of  the  2000  species  known,  not  more  than  200 
are  native  outside  the  tropics,  and  not  over  half  of  these  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Ferns  are  the  largest  of  the  Cryptogams.  In  the 
Tropics  they  become  trees,  their  pinnated  plumes  drooping 

*  The  terra  vernation  (vernus,  the  spring)  was  invented  by  Linnaeus  to  express 
the  general  idea  of  bud-folding. 

t  In  Europe  this  Osmund  grows  to  a  height  often  of  11  feet,  and  its  great  masses 
of  green  leaf-sprays  form  a  marked  feature  in  the  landscape.  Its  tall  stalk  generally 
stands  erect,  but  sometimes  it  acquires  a  drooping  habit,  as  at  the  Lakes  of  Killar- 
ney.  It  there  fringes  the  banks,  especially  of  the  river  which  connects  the  lakes,  and 
its  long  fronds  arching  gracefully  over,  dip  into  the  crystal  water,  forming  coverts 
whence  the  birds  gaze  fearlessly  out  upon  the  passing  traveler. 


OSMUNDA.  27 

from  the  summit  of  trunks  40  feet  in  height.  Fern  remains 
are  abundant  in  bituminous  coal  (see  Geology,  p.  155),  and 
the  rocky  roofs  of  the  mines  are  frescoed  with  the  delicate 
tracery  of  their  fronds  in  wonderful  variety.  These  fossils 
indicate  that  at  one  period  of  the  Earth's  history,  the  Ferns 
constituted  a  large  part  of  the  vegetation. 

Among  our  native  Ferns  are  the  Maidenhair  (Adiantum), 
the  Climbing  Fern  (Lygodium),  the  Common  Brake  (Pteris). 
Splendid  tropical  Ferns  nourish  in  our  conservatories.  Many 
of  our  own  may  be  easily  cultivated  in  the  open  air,  or  in 
Wardian  cases  with  pleasing  results. 

The  Ferns  are  not  important  either  as  food  or  medicine. 
The  rhizomes  and  young  shoots  of  several  species  are  eaten 
in  Australia  and  Oceanica  in  the  absence  of  better  food. 
Aspidium  fragrans  has  the  scent  of  raspberries  and  has  been 
used  for  tea.  From  the  Maidenhair  a  cough  syrup  called 
Syrup  of  Capillaire,  is  made.  Aspidium  Felix-mas  is  an 
effectual  vermifuge. 

The  Cryptogams. — Besides  the  Ferns  and  the  Mosses, 
this  Grand  Division  includes  also  the  Clubmosses  (Lycopods), 
the  Horsetails  (Equisetaceae),  the  Liverworts  (Hepaticae),  the 
Scalemosses  (Lichens),  the  Seaweeds  (Algae)  and  the  Moulds 
and  Mushrooms  (Fungi),  plants  descending  to  the  lowest 
rank,  the  simplest  structure,  and  the  minutest  dimensions.  * 

Scientific  Terms  defined  :— Bipinnatifid.  Circinate.  Divaricate. 
Perennial.  Pinnate-pinnatifid.  Rachis.  Vernation. 

*  The  Cryptogams  are  numerous  and  minute  beyond  conception.  They  inhabit 
every  clime,  from  the  Equator  to  the  Poles.  They  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  life. 
Without  them  vegetable  and  consequently  animal  life  would  be  impossible.  They 
—their  lower  tribes— are  the  first  to  grow  on  cinders,  sands  and  rocks.  The  last 
they  gradually  disintegrate,  and,  by  the  decay  of  successive  generations,  form  at 
length  a  soil  capable  of  sustaining  plants  of  higher  orders — grains,  grasses  and  trees, 
on  which  animals  may  live.  Thus  plants  of  higher  rank  replace  those  of  lower,  and 
fatten  on  their  spoils.  But  sooner  or  later  these  also  perish,  and  then  the  Crypto- 
gams resume  their  sway.  On  fallen  leaves  and  trunks  they  multiply,  encompassing, 
penetrating,  consuming,  and  in  a  few  years  restore  to  the  earth,  with  interest,  the 
materials  which  they  had  borrowed. 


ANALYSIS    OF    A    FERH. 


I 
•&  -2 

c     O 


EKYTHKONIUM.  29 


V.  THE  DOG-TOOTH  VIOLET. 

Description. —  Spring  has  come  again.  The  winds  blow 
soft  from  the  West  and  South  over  the  melting  snowbanks. 
Birds  once  more  fill  the  air  with  song,  while  the  plants, 
awakened  from  their  winter's  sleep,  put  on  their  robes  of 
leaf  and  flower.  Down  in  the  woody  vale,  or  in  the  thicket  by 
the  river,  the  Dogtooth  Violet  already  hangs  out  its  yellow 
bell.  Though  scentless,  the  flower  attracts  by  its  airy  grace. 
We  must  dig  carefully  around  its  tender  stalk  if  we  would 
raise  it  entire,  for  its  root  strikes  deep  into  the  loamy  soil. 
Examining  the  plant  as  a  whole,  we  find  it  smooth  and  pol- 
ished in  surface,  plump  and  fleshy  in  substance,  and  plain 
in  outline.  As  it  lives  above-ground  only  one  season,  dying 
at  the  approach  of  Winter,  it  is  an  herb. 

Analysis.— The  whole  plant  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts — the  Leaf  region  and  the  Flower  region,  and  each  of 
these  again  into  three  parts.  To  the  Leaf -region  belong  the 
root,  stem  and  leaf  ;  to  the  Flower-region,  the  stalk,  flower, 
and  fruit.  A  little  reflection  will  show  that  the  former  parts 
work  for  the  plant  itself,  and  the  latter  for  its  posterity  which 
is  to  spring  from  its  seed.  * 

THE  LEAF  REGION. — The  ffioot  is  fibrous,  i.  e.,  it  con- 
sists of  fibers  and  fibrils.  The  former  start  from  the  bottom 
of  the  stem  deep  in  the  ground,  and  are  long  and  white;  the 
latter  are  the  minute  subdivisions  of  the  fibers. 

The  Stem  is  a  simple,  slender  column  (caulis)  with  its 
lower  end  apparently  enlarged  into  a  bulb,  whence  it  is  called 
a  bulbous  stem.  The  bulb,  which  is  egg-shaped  or  ovoid  (Lat. 
ovum,  an  egg),  consists  of  many  scales,  thick,  white,  and 


*  Hence  the  former  are  called  the  vegetative  organs,  and  the  latter,  the  repro- 
ductive. 


30 


THE   DOG-TOOTH    YIOLET. 


FIG.  v.— Erythrdnium  Araericanum  :  1,  an  expanded  flower ;  2,  plan  of  the  flower ; 
3,  the  pistil ;  4,  5,  sections  of  the  fruit ;  6,  section  of  a  seed,  showing  the  embryo  and 
albumen. 


ERYTHBONIUM.  31 

broad,  growing  out  of  the  solid  base  from  which  the  stem 
arises. 

The  Leaves,  2  in  all,  are  placed  nearly  opposite  each 
other  on  the  stem,  the  lower  being  the  larger.  Their  rich 
green  color  is  singularly  variegated  with  purplish  and 
whitish  blotches.  They  stand  out  on  a  narrow  base — a  foot- 
stalk. This  is  called  the  petiole,  and  the  expansion  of  the 
leaf  is  the  blade.  The  latter  is  in  outline  both  elliptical  and 
lanceolate,  so  that  we  may  style  it  elliptical-lanceolate.  The 
apex  is  acute.  The  margins  are  even  and  entire  (without 
teeth  or  notches). 

Venation. — The  leaf  is  marked  with  fine  lines  running 
lengthwise  in  nearly  parallel  curves  corresponding  with  the 
contour  of  the  margin.  They  indicate  the  course  of  the 
veins  and  show  what  is  called  a  parallel  venation. 

THE  FLO  WEE  KEGION. — The  Slalfc  which  supports  the 
flower  is  called  the  peduncle  (a  term  higher  in  rank  than 
pedicel).  Its  top,  forming  the  basis  of  the  flower,  is  the 
torus.  It  bends  under  the  weight  of  the  flower,  but  bears 
the  fruit  erect. 

The  Flower  is  the  latest,  gayest,  and  frailest  part  of  the 
plant.  It  is  solitary,  drooping  or  nodding  from  the  curved 
top  of  the  peduncle.  We  can  easily  count  13  distinct  mem- 
bers or  organs  composing  it.  There  are  6  lanceolate  recurved 
(bent  back)  leaflets,  and  six  slender  columns,  all  standing  on 
the  torus  around  one  central  column.  The  6  leaflets  together 
constitute  the  perianth  (Gr.  peri,  around,  antlios,  flower).* 

These  13  may  be  assorted  into  4  groups  of  organs.  The  3 
outer  leaflets,  (c)  orange-red  on  the  back,  are  sepals,  and 
together  form  the  calyx  (cup,  or  goblet).  The  3  inner  are 

*  The  leaflets  of  the  perianth  are  recurved  more  or  less  according  to  the  hour  of 
the  day  and  the  amount  of  sunlight.  At  night  they  close,  and  gradually  open  as  the 
day  advances,  and  at  midday  in  a  bright  sun  they  are  recurved  as  shown  in  our  cut. 
See  XXI,  on  the  Sleep  of  plants. 


32  THE    DOG-TOOTH    VIOLET. 

petals  (p)  and  constitute  the  corolla  (crown).  Let  the  stu- 
dent take  note  of  the  two  blunt  teeth  opposite  each  other 
near  the  base  of  each  petal.  Within  the  corolla  and  peri- 
anth are  the  6  stamens — those  slender  bodies  arranged  in  2 
circles.  Each  stamen  is  made  up  of  a  filament  (fila,  thread) 
bearing  at  the  top  an  anther — a  little  oblong  box  with  2  cells 
opening  lengthwise  by  slits.  These  contain  minute  grains  of 
pollen,  which  in  due  time  escape  by  the  open  slits. 

The  ^Pollen  must  be  studied  under  the  microscope.  Then 
it  appears  composed  of  innumerable  grains,  oval,  yellowish- 
brown,  and  peculiarly  marked  (7).  Their  use  in  aiding  the 
formation  of  the  seed  will  be  shown  in  future  lessons.  * 

The  ^Pistil  (pistillum,  pestle)  is  the  central  organ  (3). 
Being  the  most  important  part  of  all,  destined  to  become 
the  fruit  and  seed,  it  is  thus  surrounded  and  protected  by 
all  the  other  organs.  It  is  composed  of  the  ovary  at  the 
base,  the  stigma  at  the  top,  and  the  style  between.  The 
stigma  is  3-lobed,  and  on  dissecting  the  ovary  (4,  5)  we  shall 
find  3-cells.  May  we  not  infer  that  there  are  3  pistils  united 
into  this  one  compound  pistil  ? 

PLAK  OF  THE  FLOWER.—  The  diagram  (2)  exhibits  the 
relative  position  of  the  different  members  of  this  flower  as 
they  stand  upon  the  torus.  They  occupy  five  circles.  The 
outer  circle  is  the  calyx,  and  y  c  c  the  position  of  the  sepals. 
The  2d  circle  is  the  corolla,  and  p  p  p  the  position  of  the 
petals.  The  3d  and  4th  circles  are  the  stamens,  and  s  their 


*  Infinitely  more  pollen  is  produced  than  is  needed,  just  as  in  spring  time  there 
are  more  blossoms  on  the  apple  tree  than  could  possibly  be  matured.  So  abundant 
is  the  yellow  pollen  developed  and  shed  by  the  Pine  that  we  frequently  see  the  ground 
in  Pine  forests  covered  with  it ;  and  swept  off  by  the  winds,  it  falls  at  a  distance, 
alarming  the  ignorant  with  a  "  sulphur  rain."  The  amount  shed  by  the  grasses  fills 
the  air,  producing  in  sensitive  nostrils  the  effect  called  the  "hay  fever."  A  single 
Pseony-flower,  according  to  Darwin,  produced  3,654,000  grains  of  pollen.  Everywhere 
in  the  floral  world  we  meet  with  the  two  opposite  rules  of  profuse  prodigality  and 
extreme  economy.  "It  is  the  moral  of  the  New  Testament  story— feeding  the  hun- 
gry thousands  and  then  gathering  up  the  fragments  that  nothing  be  lost." 


EKYTHKOtflUM.  33 

places  severally.  The  inner  circle  shows  the  position  of  the 
3  united  ovaries  (o  o  o,  called  also  carpels).  Each  member 
alternates  in  position  with  its  next  neighbors;  e.  g.,  the 
petals  with  the  sepals  and  the  outer  stamens,  &c.  And  the 
numbers  are  al]  in  3s — 3  sepals,  3  petals,  3  outer  stamens, 
&c.  Hence  the  flower  is  said  to  be  alternating,  symmetrical, 
and  S-parted. 

The  JFmit  is  the  full-grown  and  complete  ovary.  The 
flower  is  of  short  duration.  The  sepals,  petals,  stamens  and 
style  soon  fade,  wither,  and  fall.  They  are  deciduous.  But 
the  ovary  is  persistent,  growing,  and  ripening  a  month  after 
the  flower  has  done  its  work.  It  is  then  a  dry  seed-box — a 
capsule,  having  its  3  cells  packed  full  of  seeds. 

Here  we  come  to  the  ultimate  product  of  the  plant,  that 
for  which  it  lived,  grew,  bloomed,  and  labored.  In  the  shell 
of  the  seed  (called  the  testa)  is  safely  inclosed  the  rudiment 
of  a  new  plant  ready  to  be  developed  into  the  likeness  of  the 
parent.  A  careful  dissection  (6)  will  show  the  structure 
of  this  rudiment — the  embryo.  It  appears  a  simple  cylin- 
drical body  lying  in  a  white  fleshy  substance  called  albumen. 
(See  p.  42.) 

Classification. —  The  Dogtooth  Violet,  by  the  presence 
of  its  conspicuous  flower,  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
Pigeon-wheat  and  the  Polypod.  They  represent  the  Flow- 
erless  (Cryptogamia)  and  this  the  Flowering  Plants  (Pheno- 
gamia).*  Moreover,  by  the  presence  si  parallel-veined  leaves, 
S-parted  flowers,  and  seeds  ivith  a  simple  (not  lobed)  embryo, 
this  plant  represents  the  EKDOGENS,  one  of  the  two  provinces 
into  which  the  Flowering  Plants  are  divided.  (For  the  other 
province,  see  p.  43.) 

The  Name. — This  plant  is  a  Lily  rather  than  a  Violet, 

*  Thus  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  is  parted  into  two  subkingdoms,  known  by  the 
absence  or  presence  of  visible  flowers.  This  division  was  first  recognized  A.  D.  1682, 
by  John  Bay,  of  England. 


34 


THE    DOG-TOOTH    VIOLET. 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   DOG-TOOTH   VIOLET. 


ORGANS,  &c. 

DESCRIPTION. 

THE  PLANT. 

A  smooth,  fleshy  herb. 

| 

O 

H 

« 
03 
03 

£ 

1. 

fc 

INFLORESCENCE 

Solitary,  terminal,  pedunculate. 

FLOWER. 

Drooping,  bell-form,  3-parted,  alternating. 

CALYX. 

Orange.,  greenish,  and  yellow. 

Sepals. 

3,  lanceolate,  recurved. 

COROLLA. 

Within  the  calyx,  yellow. 

Petals. 

3,  lanceolate,  yellow,  recurved,  %-toothed. 

STAMENS. 

6,  in  two  rows  or  sets. 

Filament. 

Linear,  yellowish. 

Anther. 

Linear-oblong,  %-celled,  yellow. 

Pollen. 

Elliptical,  yellowish,  minute  grains. 

PISTIL. 

Triplex,  and  triply  compound. 

Ovary. 

Green,  3-sided,  S-cetted,  persistent. 

Style. 

Club-shaped  or  clavate,  deciduous. 

Stigma. 

At  top  of  the  style,  3-lobed. 

FRUIT. 

An  erect,  compound  capsule. 

PERICARP. 

Dry,  opening  by  S-valves. 

SEEDS. 

Many,  ovoid,  with  a  curved  point. 

LEAVES. 

2,  nearly  opposite,  mottled. 

PETIOLE. 

At  the  base  of  the  leaf,  linear. 

BLADE. 

Elliptic-lanceolate,  acute. 

VENATION. 

Parallel. 

STEM. 

Mostly  subterranean,  blanched. 

BULB. 

At  the  base,  ovoid,  white,  of  scales. 

CAULIS. 

Simple,  6-10'  long,  annual. 

ROOT. 

Consisting  of  white  fibers,  deep  down. 

LOCALITY.— Damp  shady  woods,  (Date)  April  10th,  1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.— Subkingdom,  PHENOGAMIA. 

—Province,  ENDOGENS. 

—Order,  THE  LILYWORTS. 
NAME.— English,  Dog-tooth  Violet. 

—Latin,  Erithronium  Americannm. 


TULIPA.  35 

as  we  shall  see  hereafter  (p.  257) ;  hence  the  common  name  is 
false  as  well  as  inelegant.  The  term  Dogtooth  may  refer 
to  the  two  indentures  on  each  petal  (p.  32),  or  to  its  bulbs 
as  they  grow  in  England.  The  scientific  or  classic  name  is 
Erythronium  (erulhros,  red,  the  color  it  often  assumes  in 
Europe).  The  name  of  our  species  is  E.  Americdnum. 

Scientific  Terms  Defined. —  Acute.  Alternating.  Anther. 
Bulbous  stem.  Calyx.  Capsule.  Carpels.  Caulis.  Corolla.  Decid- 
uous. Endogens.  Entire.  Fibrils.  Fibrous.  Filament.  Herb. 
Ovary.  Ovoid.  Parallel-veined.  Peduncle.  Perianth.  Persistent. 
Petals.  Petiole.  Phenogamia.  Pistil.  Pollen.  Recurved.  Sepals. 
Solitary.  Stamens.  Stigma.  Style.  Torus. 

VI.  THE  TULIP. 

Description. — The  tulip  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Mt. 
Taurus  and  the  adjacent  region.  It  has  been  cultivated  by 
florists  for  more  than  three  centuries  in  Europe,  and  one  in 
America.  It  blossoms  in  the  garden  a  week  or  two  later 
than  the  wild  Erythronium,  with  which  it  is  closely  related. 
Careful  study  will  reveal  between  them  striking  differences 
as  well  as  resemblances.  Viewing  the  plant  as  a  whole, 
mark  its  height,  its  glaucous  (sea-green)  *  color,  its  smooth 
surface. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  EEGION. — The  bulb,  if  cut  across, 
will  exhibit  a  series  of  concentric  rings,  each  one  being  an 
entire  layer.  Bulbs  so  constructed  are  called  tunicated,\ 
form  familiar  in  the  Onion.  The  Leaves  are  large 


*  According  to  the  Greek  Mythology,  Glaucu,s  was  the  name  of  a  fisherman  who 
leaped  into  the  sea  and  "  by  transmutation  strange  "  became  a  sea-god.  Hence  the 
botanists  use  the  word  to  express  the  pale  sea-green  color  of  the  foliage  of  certain 
plants,  as  well  as  of  the  whitish  powder  which  sometimes  covers  them. 

t  The  Lily  grows  from  a  scaly  bulb,  i.  e.,  a  bulb  composed  of  scales,  each  forming 
but  a  partial  (not  entire)  layer  or  ring.  In  the  heart  of  the  Tulip  bulb,  protected  by 
these  layers,  are  hidden  not  only  the  future  stem,  but  the  leaves  also,  and  even  the 
coming  flower  with  all  its  various  organs.  This  bulb  also  contains  under  its  outer 


36 


THE    TULIP. 


and  few,  rarely  more  than  3.  In  margin,  they  agree  with 
Erythronium  except  that  they  are  wavy.  In  figure,  they  are 
partly  lanceolate,  and  partly  with 
the  outline  of  an  egg,  being 
broadest  just  below  the  middle: 
hence  they  are  ov^^-lanceolate. 
They  have  a  clasping  base  and  no 
petiole.  Compare  the  venation 
with  that  of  Erythronium  (p.  31). 
THE  FLOWER  REGION. —  Here 
note  the  attitude  of  the  flower 
in  contrast  with  that  of  Erythro- 
nium; but  its  organs  are  of  the 
same  number  and  kind.*  The 

Sepals  and  petals  are 

distinguished  only  by 

their  position.     Which 

outer  ?     They  are    all 

ovate,  blunt  (obtuse)  at  the  apex, 

Concave,  and  not  recurved  nor 

spreading.    The  ovary  and  its  re- 
sulting pod  is  in  the  form  of  a 

triangular  prism.   The  3  stigmas 


are  the 
broadly 


Fig.  VI.  Tulipa 
Gesneriana;  2,  sec- 
tion of  the  bulb;  3, 
the  pistil. 


coat  two  minute  buds  ready  to  be  developed  in  turn  to  take  the  place  of  the  parent 
(2).  Thus,  after  flowering  and  fruiting,  we  shall  find  the  bulb  which  we  planted 
shriveled  and  empty,  having  imparted  its  substance  to  its  offspring,  but  already 
replaced  by  another  or  two,  full  grown  from  the  buds,  and  replete  with  rudiments 
like  the  former.  So  provident  is  Nature.  "No  leaf  drops  till  a  new  one  is  prepared 
to  take  its  place ;  no  flower  perishes  naturally  till  its  house  is  made  ready  and  fur- 
nished with  seeds.  In  Autumn,  the  sad  season  of  decay,  there  is  yet  as  much  of  life 
as  of  death."  Amidst  the  tokens  of  death  are  the  elements  of  growth.  In  the 
autumn  buds  of  the  Oak  are  hidden  its  future  leaves  ;  in  those  of  the  Lilac,  its  com- 
ing leaves  and  flowers.  In  the  bulb  of  the  Hyacinth,  another  season's  blossoms  are 
clearly  seen  even  with  the  naked  eye.  The  rich  mucilage  of  the  Slippery  Elm,  and 
the  sweet  sap  of  the  Sugar  Maple,  are  provided  beforehand  for  feeding  the  young 
buds  and  hastening  their  early  development.  Thus  within  a  few  days  a  large  tree 
will  cover  itself  with  foliage  and  bloom. 

*  The  flower  of  the  Tulip  like  that  of  the  Rose  (p.  114)  is  often  double,  in  which 
state  it  is  unfit  for  analysis. 


TULIPA.  37 

are  quite  distinct,  sessile  (sitting)  on  the  ovary,  there  being 
no  style. 

The  Name  is  from  a  Persian  word  signifying  a  turban, 
whose  gay  colors  it  resembles.  In  Latin  it  becomes  Talipa. 
The  Common  Tulip,  here  figured,  is  T.  Gesneriana,  being 
dedicated  to  Gesner,  a  Swiss  botanist,  who  saw  it  blooming 
in  a  garden  in  Augsburg  and  first  made  it  public  in  1559.* 

Varieties.— "Ntts  flower  indulges  in  many  freaks  and 
fancies  as  to  the  cut  and  color  of  her  robes.  Now  they  are 
single,  now  double,  and  now  semidouble.  Here  they  are 
yellow,  there  white,  and  even  crimson,  purple  or  carmine. 
Again  they  are  mixed — striped,  spotted  or  flecked  in  endless 
combinations  of  colors.  These  are  merely  varieties  of  the 
same  species,  induced  by  their  treatment  in  cultivation. 
Names  are  given  them  by  the  florists,  rarely  by  botanists, 
such  as  Bizarres,  Due  Van  Thol,  Bubloones,  Comte  de  Pom- 
padour, Parrotts,  &c.f 

The  Record. — With  these  few  hints  to  guide,  let  the 
student  now  complete  the  analysis  of  the  Tulip  and  write  its 
record  in  the  annexed  tablet. 

Scientific  Terms.— Clasping.  Obtuse.  Ovate.  Scaly  bulb. 
Sessile.  Tunicated.  Varieties. 

*  The  taste  for  cultivating  the  Tulip  spread  into  the  Netherlands,  and  about  1634 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  all  classes  began  to  speculate  in  the  bulbs.  Houses 
and  lands  were  sold  to  be  invested  in  flowers.  Ordinary  business  was  neglected. 
Sudden  fortunes  were  made.  Nobles,  mechanics  and  chimney-sweeps  alike  flocked 
to  the  tulip-market.  Prices  increased  until  a  single  bulb  (the  Semper  Augustus)  sold 
as  high  as  $6,000  of  our  present  money.  A  story  is  told  of  an  English  botanist  who, 
traveling  in  Holland,  happened  to  see  a  tulip-root  in  a  conservatory.  Ignorant  of 
its  value  he  began  to  peel  off  its  coats  to  examine  its  peculiar  structure.  While  im- 
mersed in  his  botanical  study,  the  owner  suddenly  rushed  in  and  in  an  agony  of  rage 
shouted  "It's  an  Admiral  Van  der  Eyck  ! M  In  vain  the  traveler  protested  his  scien- 
tific intentions.  He  was  dragged  before  a  magistrate,  where,  to  his  consternation,  he 
learned  that  the  innocent-looking  bulb  was  worth  4000  florins  and  that  he  was  to  be 
held  in  confinement  until  he  found  securities  for  that  sum. — At  last  this  tulip  rage 
ran  its  course.  Prices  suddenly  fell.  The  rich  of  yesterday  became  the  poor  of  to- 
day. A  commercial  crisis  ensued.  Holland  did  not  recover  from  the  "  Tulip  mania  " 
for  many  years. — The  love  for  this  flower  still  exists  in  that  country.  We  import  our 
best  bulbs  from  Holland,  and  the  wealthy  Dutchman  boasts  of  his  fine  tulips  as  a  rich 
Englishman  does  of  his  horses  or  paintings. 

t  For  the  Order  of  Tulip  and  Erythronium,  see  LXVTI. 


38 


THE   TULIP. 
ANALYSIS   OF  THE  TULIP. 


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INPLORESCEN 

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CLAYTONIA.  39 

VII.   THE  SPRING   BEAUTY. 

Description. — Early  in  Spring,  in  the  grassy  meadow, 
along  the  shady  margins  of  the  woods,  or  under  tangled  thick- 
ets, often  in  company  with  the  Dog-tooth  Violet,  lo  !  the 
Spring  Beauty!  Its  roots,  like  those  of  its  neighbor,  strike 
deep  into  the  soil,  and  in  order  to  lift  the  plant  entire  we 
must  make  careful  use  of  the  trowel.  Viewed  as  a  whole, 
the  Spring  Beauty  in  outline,  surface,  and  substance,  resem- 
bles the  Dog-tooth  Violet.  It  is  also  divisible  into  the  same 
regions  and  parts. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGION. — The  ffioot  is  a  new 
and  singular  structure.  There  is  a  massive  body,  irregularly 
rounded,  brown  without,  white  and  starchy  within.  To 
this  tuber*  as  it  is  called,  are  attached  the  ordinary  fibers 
and  fibrils.  These  are  the  true  working  roots,  absorbing  plant- 
food  from  the  ground,  while  the  tuber  serves  as  a  reservoir 
for  its  reception  after  being  digested  and  changed  to  starch. 

The  Stem  is  a  simple,  slender  column,  a  few  inches  in 
height.  In  substance,  it  is  herbaceous,  that  is,  tender,  juicy, 
flexible,  greenish.  In  attitude,  it  is  erect  and  upright;  for, 
though  weak,  it  stands  unsupported. 

The  Z,eaves,  2  in  number,  grow  opposite  each  other  in 
the  air  and  light  at  the  top  of  the  stem.  In  outline,  they 
are  narrowly  lance-shaped,  nearly  as  in  the  Pigeon-wheat, 
linear-lanceolate,  or  almost  linear.  They  are  fixed  to  the 
stem  by  their  base  without  the  intervention  of  a  petiole;  that 
is  to  say,  they  are  sessile  (sitting),  while  the  upper  end,  the 
apex,  as  in  all  plants,  is  free ;  their  margin  is  entire,  and 
color,  green. 

THE  FLOWER  REGION. — The  Flower  is  a  curious  gem, 

*  Botanists  generally  consider  the  tuber  as  a  member  of  the  stem.  But  to  avoid 
subtle  distinctions  at  this  early  stage,  we  here  incline  to  the  popular  view  regarding 
it  as  a  member  of  the  root. 


40 


THE    SPRING    BEAUTY. 


FIG.  VTL— Clayt6nia  Virginica :  1,  plan  of  the  flower ;  2,  a  petal  with  a  stamen 
opposite  ;  3,  4,  stamens,  front  and  rear  view  ;  5,  the  pistil ;  6,  ovary  dissected  ;  7,  an 
ovule;  8,  fruit  just  opening,  with  calyx  ;  9,  a  seed  ;  10,  the  embryo. 

inviting  study,  and  losing  none  of  its  interest  and  loveliness 
by  a  close  inspection.  Let  us  first  observe  the  situation  and 
arrangement,  or  what  the  botanists  call 


CLAYTOKIA.  41 

The  Inflorescence.  The  flowers  form  a  cluster  above 
the  leaves  at  the  termination  of  the  stem.  In  the  cluster 
appears  (a  to  b)  a  general  foot-stalk — the  peduncle — support- 
ing the  whole;  an  axis  (b  to  c),  called  the  rachis  (spine) 
running  through  the  midst ;  and  several  special  foot-stalks 
(d),  pedicels,  branching  from  the  rachis,  each  bearing  one 
flower.  The  whole  cluster  so  arranged  is  a  raceme.*  The 
flowers  do  not  all  open  at  once,  but  in  a  regular  succession, 
beginning  with  the  lowest  in  the  raceme  and  ending  with 
the  highest.  While  the  lower  are  in  bloom  or  past  bloom, 
the  upper  are  in  bud  or  just  opening.  The  word  centripetal  f 
is  used  to  express  this  special  mople  of  inflorescence. 

The  Flower  is  made  up  of  four  sets  of  organs,  each  set 
a  circle  one  within  another.  First,  the  calyx  or  cup  (c)  con- 
taining all  the  rest.  It  consists  of  2  green  leaflets  called 
sepals.  Next  within  is  the  delicately  colored  corolla  consist- 
ing of  5  rose-tinted  and  red-lined  petals  I  (p).  Third,  a 
circle  of  5  stamens  (s),  each  consisting  of  a  slender  filament 
(/)  tipped  with  an  oblong  anther  (h).  We  must  not  fail  to 
observe  their  unusual  situation — each  opposite  to  (opposing) 
a  petal  (2).  Observe  also  (3,  4)  how  the  anther  is  attached 
to  the  filament,  how  its  2  cells  open,  and  how  it  seems  to  face 
this  way  or  that.  Here  it  faces  the  pistil,  and  we  say  it  is 
introrse ;  and  the  cells  open  lengthwise.  And  fourth,  the 
pistil  (5)  in  the  center  of  the  flower,  consists  of  one  ovary, 
one  style  and  three  stigmas  (g).  If  we  dissect  the  ovary  (6), 


*  Sometimes  in  vigorous  specimens  the  rachis  divides,  forming  two  racemes,  or  a 
double  raceme. 

t  The  top  of  the  inflorescence  is  regarded  as  its  center,  the  base  the  circumfer- 
ence ;  hence  the  fitness  of  the  word  (centrum,  the  center,  peto,  I  seek). 

$  The  colored  converging  lines  and  veins  which  mark  the  petals  of  Spring  Beauty, 
Pansy,  Geranium  and  other  flowers,  serve  as  honey-guides  for  insects.  They  inva- 
riably converge  towards  the  nectaries  at  the  base  of  the  petals  and  stamens.  An 
insect  following  them  is  led  directly  to  where  the  honey  is  secreted.  On  its  way  its 
body  is  dusted  with  pollen,  or,  already  dusted,  is  brought  into  contact  with  a  pistil 
ready  to  receive  it. 


4:2  THE    SPUING    BEAUTY. 

we  shall  find  within  its  cell  3  or  6  young  seeds  (ovules).  Here 
also,  as  in  the  pistil  of  Erythrdnium,  are  clear  indications  of 
tri-unity. 

The  ffiwit.  While  the  ovary  is  growing  and  ripening 
into  fruit,  it  is  attended  and  protected  by  the  persistent 
calyx  (8);  but  the  corolla,  stamens  and  style  are  early  decid- 
uous. The  fruit  is  finally  a  dry  seed-box  or  capsule  (8), 
opening  by  3  valves,  and  disclosing  3  or  more  black,  shining, 
lens-shaped  seeds  (9). 

The  Seed.  Here  again  we  come  to  the  ultimate  product 
of  the  plant.  The  seed  contains  the  curved  embryo  (10) — 
the  young  plant  slumbering  in  its  cradle.  Surrounding  it  is 
a  white  mass  of  albumen*  (albus,  white),  a  storehouse  of 
food  provided  for  the  sustenance  of  the  young  plant  after 
awaking  and  before  its  roots  can  draw  nourishment  from 
the  soil.  Mark  here  the  structure  of  the  embryo  (in  con- 
trast with  that  of  Erythronium),  how  it  is  curved,  and  cleft 
at  the  upper  end  into  two  equal  seed-lobes,  or  cotyledons.] 

*P2an  of  the  J?72ower.  —  The  diagram  (1)  indicates 
the  relative  position  of  the  organs  as  they  stand  on  the  torus; 
first,  the  2  sepals  ;  3d,  the  5  petals ;  3d,  the  5  stamens  oppos- 
ing the  petals ;  4th,  the  ovary — 3  in  1.  Why  then  is  this 
flower  unsymmetrical?  Why  is  it  5-parted  ? 

^Estivation. — This  diagram  also  shows  how  the  enve- 
lopes are  folded  in  the  bud,  that  is,  their  cestivation  (cestivas, 
summer);  but  the  buds  themselves  will  show  it  much  better. 
The  margins  do  not  exactly  meet,  but  overlie  each  other  like 


*  By  a  wise  provision,  the  albumen  is  deposited  in  the  form  of  starch,  which  is 
insoluble  in  water,  or  else  the  first  rain  would  dissolve  and  waste  the  young  plant's 
inheritance.  There  is,  however,  laid  up  also  in  the  seed  a  bit  of  ferment  called  gluten. 
By  the  action  of  moisture  this  will  slowly  change  the  starch  to  sugar;  and  that  being 
soluble  can  be  used  by  the  tiny  shoot  as  it  needs.  (See  Vhemistry,  pp.  184  and  194.) 

t  The  ovules  in  the  cut  6  are  growing  erect  from  the  base  of  the  cell;  (7)  shows 
an  ovule  more  advanced,  with  its  stalk  (funiculus).  Comparing  this  with  (10),  it  is 
evident  that  the  ovule  in  growing  bent  over  on  itself,  bringing  its  apex  near  its  base. 


CLAYTOtflA.  43 

shingles  on  a  roof,  i.  e.,  are  imbricated  (imbrex,  a  tile).*  A 
special  mode  of  imbrication  is  seen  in  the  petals,  of  which  2 
are  wholly  within,  2  wholly  without,  and  1  is  partly  both, 
having  one  edge  within  and  one  without.  This  is  the  quin- 
cuncial  aestivation  and  very  common. 

The  Name,  Claytonia,  was  given  by  Linnaeus  to  this 
plant  in  honor  of  John  Clayton,  who  sent  it  to  him,  in  1757, 
from  Virginia.  Hence  this  species  is  called  C.  Virginica. 
Another  species  was  first  seen  by  Michaux,  about  1800,  in 
the  mountains  of  N.  Carolina  and  so  named  C.  Caroliniana. 
But  it  is  far  more  common  northward  from  New  England  to 
Wisconsin.  You  may  know  it  by  its  leaves  being  shorter 
and  broader — elliptic-lanceolate.  What  other  differences  do 
you  find  ? 

The  Order. — The  Claytonias  belong  to  the  same  order 
with  the  splendid  flowering  Portulacas,  viz.  PORTULACACE^, 
or  the  PURSLANES.  That  troublesome  weed  of  the  gardens 
— the  common  Purslane,  is  also  a  species  of  the  genus  Por- 
tulclca — P.  olerdcea.  Its  small  yellow  flowers  appear  in 
Summer,  and  its  curious  seed-boxes  in  September.  These 
open  by  a  lid  crosswise,  and  bear  the  classic  name  of  pyxis 
(a  box.  Fig.  XLIII,  3).  In  some  countries  Purslane  is  es- 
teemed as  a  pot-herb,  and  a  salad,  on  account  of  its  cooling 
antiscorbutic  properties  (Lindley). 

Classification.  —  In  contrast  with  Erythronium,  the 
gemis  Claytonia,  and  its  order,  by  their  %-lobed  embryo,  and 
their  flowers  5-parted  (or  at  least  not  3-parted),  represent  the 
EXOGENS,  the  other  province  of  the  Flowering  Plants  (p.  33). 

Scientific  Terms.— Estivation.  Albumen.  Centripetal  inflo- 
rescence. Herbaceous.  Imbricated.  Introrse.  Opposing  stamens. 
Pedicel.  Pyxis.  Quincuncial.  Raceme.  Rachis.  Sessile.  Tuber. 

*  In  other  plants  the  sepals  or  petals  may  be  found  to  meet  edge  to  edge.  Such 
aestivation  is  called  valvate.  Indeed  the  valves  of  the  capsule  of  this  plant  thus  meet 
While  closed  (8).  See  other  modes  of  aestivation  described  in  p.  85, 


44 


ANALYSIS    OF    SPRING    BEAUTY. 


The  Record. — With  the  following  tablet  as  a  guide,  let 
the  student  record  the  analysis  of  our  other  Claytonia,  or  of 
Purslane,  or  a  Portulaca,  in  the  annexed  blank  tablet. 


Organs. 

DESCRIPTION. 

THE  PLANT. 

An  herb,  terrestrial,  3—6'  high,  fleshy,  smooth. 

ROOT. 

Brown  fibers  with  a  roundish,  starchy  tuber. 

STEM. 

Herbaceous,  simple,  upright. 

LEAVES. 

2,  opposite,  sessile,  linear,  or  lance-linear,  3—6'  long. 

INFLORESCENCE. 

Terminal  raceme,  with  long  pedicels,  centripetal. 

FLOWER. 

5-parted,  unsymmetrical,  opposing,  8"  diameter. 

CALYX. 

%-parted,  green. 

Sepals. 

Persistent,  2,  erect,  ovate,  short. 

COROLLA. 

5-parted,  delicately  colored  and  pencilled. 

Petals. 

5,  deciduous,  spreading,  obovate,  roseate. 

STAMENS. 

5,  opposing  the  petals. 

Filament. 

Slender,  white. 

Anther. 

Opening  lengthwise,  oblong,  innate. 

PISTIL—  OVABT. 

Triple,  ovoid,  6-ovuled,  green. 

Style. 

Slender,  green-white. 

Stigmas. 

3,  pink-colored. 

FRUIT. 

Capsule,  3-sided,  conical,  inclosed  in  the  calyx. 

Pericarp. 

Dry,  3-valved,  1-cetted  or  partly  3-celled. 

Seeds. 

3—6,  lens-shaped,  black,  shining. 

LOCALITY.—  Low,  damp  soil.    (Date),  April  25. 
CLASSIFICATION.  -Subkingdom,  FLOWERING  PLANTS. 
—Province,  EXOGENS. 
—Order,  PORTULACACE^B. 
NAME.—  English,  Spring  Beauty. 
—Latin,  Claytonia  Virgiiiica. 

ANALYSIS    OF 


45 


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Corolla. 

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Stamens. 

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LOCALITY,  
CLASSIFICATION 
Order 

46 


THE    EAELY    CROWFOOT. 


VIII.   THE   EARLY  CROWFOOT. 

Description. — In  May  and  June  the  fields  are  resplen- 
dent with  Buttercups.  As  early  as  April  we  find  one  kind, 
at  least,  gilding  the  rocky  hills  and  woods.  In  this,  and  its 

portrait,  root,  stems,  leaves, 
flowers,  stalks,  and  fruit  are 
present. 

Analysis.  —  The 
is  a  bundle  (fas- 
cicle) of  fibers,  some  of 
which  are  thickened, 
fleshy,  almost  tuber- 
ous ;  we  call  such 
roots  fasciculate. 
They  are  strong 
and  durable. 
They  have  sur- 
vived the  frosts 
of  the  past  win- 
ter ;  and  if  you 
have  considered 
the  Crowfoot 
plant  from  year 
to  year,  you  have 
learned  that  it  is  a  perennial  Jierl.  Although  the  parts 
above  ground  perish  in  Autumn,  the  root  still  lives  and 
sends  up  another  plant  in  the  following  Spring,  and  so  on  for 
many  seasons.  The  symbol  adopted  for  such  an  herb  is  2£. 

The  Stem  (or  stems,  for  there  may  be  several  arising 
from  the  same  root)  is  green  and  herbaceous,  branching, 
hairy,  6-10'  high,  and  ending  in  the  flower-stalks. 


FIG.  VHI.— Ranunculus  fascicularis  :  3,  a  head  of  car- 
pels ;  4,  a  single  carpel ;  5,  the  seed  in  the  achenium  ;  6, 
seed  dissected,  showing  the  embryo  in  albumen. 


KANUNCULUS.  47 

The  Z/eares  are  many.  Most  of  them  are  radical)  arising 
with  the  stem  from  the  root  (radix)-,  others  are  cauline, 
growing  from  the  stem  (caulis)  above  the  base.  They  are 
also  alternate  in  arrangement — one  above  another,  spirally  (p. 
193).  The  lower  leaves  are  borne  on  long,  slender  petioles  ; 
the  upper  are  sessile,  having  no  petiole.  The  blades  are 
ternately  divided,  i.  e.,  into  three  divisions,  or  pinnately 
into  five,  and  the  terminal  division  is  stalked ;  then  all  the 
divisions  are  cut  into  lobes. 

The  Terns,  although  present,  are  not  always  discernible. 
In  Spring  Beauty  they  are  concealed.  In  Crowfoot  they  are 
not  conspicuous,  yet  evidently  are  not  parallel,  as  in  Ery- 
thronium.  Under  a  magnifier  they  seem  to  form  a  net- 
work ;  that  is,  they  are  reticulated  (reticula,  a  net). 

The  Flowers  are  borne  on  peduncles,  which  terminate 
the  stem  and  branches — one  on  each  peduncle.  They  are 
perfect  and  complete,  having  all  the  proper  and  essential 
floral  organs.*  The  calyx  consists  of  five  lanceolate,  green- 
ish, spreading  sepals,  much  smaller  than  the  petals.  The 
corolla  consists  of  five  yellow,  shining,  spreading  petals.  In 
outline  the  petals  are  inversely  lanceolate  or  ovate  (o#-lance- 
olate  or  0£-ovate),  being  broadest  above  the  middle.  At  the 
base  there  is  a  honey-pore,  which  we  may  call  a  nectary, 
covered  by  a  little  scale  (Fig.  IX,  6).  The  stamens  are  many 
in  number — said  to  be  indefinite  (denoted  thus,  oo),  although, 
if  carefully  counted,  they  will  generally  be  found  some  multi- 
ple of  5;  as  25,  30,  etc.  The  term  polyandrous  (polys,  many, 
andres,  stamens)  is  of  a  similar  meaning.  The  filament, 
anther,  and  pollen  we  leave  to  be  identified  by  the  studen  t. 

*  A  flower  is  botanically  perfect  when  it  has  both  stamens  and  pistils.  The  sym- 
bol is  ? .  It  is  complete  when  it  has  stamens,  pistils,  calyx  and  corolla— all  the 
proper  organs.  A  flower  is  apetalous  when  the  calyx  is  present  without  the  corolla  ; 
it  is  staminate  ( $ )  when  having  stamens  without  pistils,  and  pistillate  ( $ )  pistils 
without  stamens. 


48  THE   EAKLY   CBOWFOOT. 

Notice  how  the  stamens  stand  directly  on  the  torus,  neither 
adhering  to  any  other  member,  nor  co-hering  among  them- 
selves. They  are  hypogynous  (hypo,  under,  gyne,  the  pistil). 
This  character  is  of  great  significance.*  (Fig.  VIII,  9.)  The 
pistils  are  also  numerous,  twenty  or  more,  generally  some 
multiple  of  5.  Their  form  and  structure  are  remarkable — 
one-sided  (5),  consisting  each  of 
an  ovary  tipped  with  a  sessile 
stigma,  without  a  style. 

The  Fruit.  In  a  few  days  the 
work  of  the  yellow  buttercup  is  2' flower  of  R- 
done.  Bees  and  other  insects  have  drained  its  nectaries  and 
scattered  its  pollen.  The  sepals,  petals  and  stamens  fade  and 
fall.  These  are  the  deciduous  parts.  But  the  pistils  still 
persist,  attached  to  the  torus,  growing  and  forming  a  round- 
ish head  (4)  of  as  many  little  fruits  (carpels)  as  there  were 
pistils.  Let  us  dissect  one  of  these  carpels  (6).  It  holds 
just  one  seed  in  one  cell.  It  is  an  achenium — a  simple  fruit 
formed  of  one  carpel  (not  of  three,  as  in  Erythronium).  In 
the  figure  is  represented  a  section  of  the  seed,  showing  a 
small  embryo  with  two  cotyledons,  imbedded  in  albumen. 
Here  is  work  for  the  microscope. 

The  Name. — There  are  many  kinds  of  Buttercup- 
Crowfoots.  Some  of  them  delight  in  ponds  and  sluggish 
streams,  with  the  frogs  for  their  companions.  For  this  rea- 
son, Linnaeus  named  them  all  Ranunculus  (a  little  frog). 
Ranunculus  is  therefore  the  name  of  a  group  of  similar 
forms,  =  a  Genus,  including  all  sorts  and  kinds  of  Butter- 
cup-Crowfoots. The  specific  form  here  figured  and  de- 
scribed, known  at  sight  by  its  early  date,f  showy  flowers, 

*  On  account  of  their  hypogynous  stamens,  and  the  entire  freedom  or  distinctness 
of  all  their  floral  organs,  botanists  have  assigned  the  Buttercups  and  their  order  to 
the  highest  rank  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 

t  There  is  no  danger  of  confounding  this  species  with  that  other  one  which  also 


RANUNCULUS.  40 

ANALYSIS    OF    EAELY    BUTTERCUP. 


ORGAN. 

(Its)  Life,  Habit,  Number,  Place,  Kind,  Construction,  Form, 
Size,  Qualities  of  color,  surface,  taste,  &c.,  and  Appendages. 

THE  PLANT. 

il  damp  shades.    1  foot  high.    Hairy. 

ROOT. 

it  fasciculate,  fibers  white,  long,  some  of  them  thickened. 

STEM. 

Herbaceous,  branching,  caulis  hollow,  diffuse. 

LEAVES. 

Deciduous,  alternate,  pinnately  divided,  netted,  petiolate. 

INFLORESCENCE. 

Terminal,  erect,  solitary,  peduncle  1-6',  terete. 

FLOWER. 

5-parted,  complete,  regular,  I'  broad. 

Calyx. 

Spreading,  greenish-yellow. 

Sepals. 

5,  deciduous,  lanceolate,  distinct,  imbricate. 

Corolla. 

Rosaceous,  shining  golden-yellow. 

Petals. 

5,  deciduous,  oblanceolate,  scale  and  honey-pore  at  base. 

Stamens. 

SO-ltO,  hypogynous,  with  slender  filaments. 

Anthers. 

Oblong,  %-celled,  yellow,  dehiscing  lengthwise. 

Pistils. 

20-30,  distinct,  style  very  short  or  none. 

Ovary. 

Obliquely  ovate,  lens-shaped,  green. 

Stigma. 

Sessile,  terminal,  a  little  curved. 

FRUIT. 

20-30,  distinct,  achenia,  in  a  roundish  head. 

SEED. 

One  in  each  carpel  or  achenium. 

LOCALITY—  Woods,  Westchester,  2T.  T. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  PHENOGAMIA,  EXOGENS. 
ORDER.—  RANUNCULACEJE,  or  THE  CROWFOOTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Ranunculus  fascicularis. 

—English,  Early  Crowfoot.    Buttercups. 

begins  to  flower  in  April,  having  its  radical  leaves  nearly  round,  crenate-toothed  (see 
Glossary),  its  petals  very  small,  not  larger  than  the  sepals,  and  therefore  named  by 
Linnaeus,  E.  abortlvus  (as  if  the  flower  were  abortive). 


THE   BULBOUS   CKOWFOOT. 

and  fasciculate  roots,  was   named  by  Dr.   Muhlenburg,* 
Ranunculus  fascicularis. 

Scientific  Terms. — Achenium.  Alternate.  Cauline.  Fascicu- 
late. Hypogynous.  Indefinite.  Nectary.  Oblanceolate.  Obovate. 
Perennial  Herb.  Pinnately  divided.  Radical.  Reticulate.  Sessile. 
Simple  fruit.  Ternately  divided. 

IX.   THE   BULBOUS   CROWFOOT. 

Description. —  In  the  month  of  May  we  begin  to  find 
other  Crowfoots,  especially  the  Bulbous,  adorning  the  mead- 
ows and  hilly  pastures  with  their  golden  cups.  This  is  a 
neat  and  elegant  plant,  more  erect  and  silky-haired  than  the 
Early  C.  Indeed  it  is  pre-eminently  the  true  Buttercup. 
Let  us  see  wherein  the  two  kinds  differ,  and  how  they  may 
be  distinguished. 

Analysis. — The  ffioot  is  fibrous,  being  wholly  composed 
of  slender,  white,  branching  fibers,  springing  together  from 
the  base  of  the  stem.  There  is  no  central  axis  as  if  the  stem 
continued  downward.  Such  roots  are  inaxial.  \ 

The  Stem  enlarges  at  the  base  into  a  sort  of  bulb,  rather 
a  corm,  which  in  the  Autumn  is  round,  plump  and  solid.  J 
Thence  it  stands  erect,  about  1  foot  high,  dividing  into 
straight  branches  ending  in  flower-stalks. 

*  Rev.  Henry  Muhlenburg,  D.D.,  author  of  a  work  on  the  Grasses,  Flora  Lancas- 
triensis,  and  other  books,  was  in  his  day  the  pioneer  American  botanist,  "a  Christian 
philosopher  characterized  by  zeal  and  industry  not  more  than  by  humility  and 
unbounded  liberality  of  sentiment  towards  his  contemporaries."  Died  A.  D.  1815, 
ret.  62. 

t  This  term  will  be  better  understood  if  we  compare  it  with  an  axial  root,  such  as 
we  find  in  the  Clover  or  Yellow  Dock,  where  the  stem  seems  to  continue  downward, 
gradually  dissolving  into  fibers. 

$  In  ancient  times  this  bulb  was  called  "  St.  Anthony's  Turnip."  But  if  that  pious 
hermit  ever  dined  on  it,  he  must  have  dried  it  well  in  the  sun  to  expel  its  acridity.  In 
its  fresh  state  it  is  pungent  and  emetic — properties  of  which  medical  students  some- 
times make  a  mischievous  use  by  persuading  their  companions  in  attendance  on  the 
botanical  lectures  to  test  their  excellence  by  tasting.  The  herbage  also  has  acrid 
properties,  which  prove  a  defence  against  its  enemies.  Cattle  avoid  it,  so  that  it 
stands  and  blooms  unmolested  even  in  closely  cropped  pastures. 


RANUNCULUS    BULBOSUS. 


51 


Fia.  IX.— Ranunculus  bulbdsus :  A,  the  bulb,  as  in  autumn  \  B,  the  bulb  in 
spring  ;  1,  plan  of  the  flower  ;  2,  a  petal ;  3.  achenium  dissected. 


52  THE    BULBOUS    CROWFOOT. 

The  Jjeares  are  mostly  radical,  long-petioled,  ter- 
nately  divided,  with  -the  terminal  division  stalked,  all 
deeply  3-cleft,  and  lobed.  The  venation  is  plainly  reticu- 
lated. 

The  Flowers  are  singly  mounted  on  long,  slender  pe- 
duncles which  are  grooved  or  furrowed.  The  5  sepals  are 
reflexed — hent  backward  and  downward.*  The  5  petals 
are  broad,  rounded,  shining  and  golden,  forming  a  cup- 
shaped  corolla.  The  honey  scale  at  the  base  of  each  petal 
is  toothed.  The  stamens  are  about  50 ;  and  the  pistils 
(carpels)  about  20,  each  tipped  with  a  short,  sessile,  recurved 
stigma. 

The  .Fruit  is  a  round  head  of  about  20  distinct,  lens- 
shaped  aclienia,  each  tipped  with  a  short  beak. 

PLAIST  OF  TITE  FLOWER. — While  there  is  only  one  whorl 
or  circle  of  sepals  (c)  and  one  of  petals  (p),  there  are  at 
least  5  of  stamens  (s)  and  4  of  pistils  (o).  The  alternating 
position  of  all  these  organs,  so  clearly  shown  in  the 
diagram,  is  obscured  in  the  flower  itself  by  their  crowded 
condition.  Why  is  the  flower  symmetrical  ?  Why  is  it 
hypogynous  ? 

The  Name. —  This  pretty  specimen  of  Buttercup  is 
appropriately  named  Ranunculus  bulbosus  (Linn.)f — the 
Bulbous  Crowfoot. 

The  Record. — The  analysis  of  this  plant  may  be  recorded 
in  the  accompanying  blank  tablet,  or  in  one  of  similar 

*  It  is  noticeable  that  the  green  sepals  of  the  Calyx,  having  acted  as  nurses  and 
protectors  to  the  petals  of  the  flower  buds,  are  reflected  or  fall  off  almost  immediately 
after  the  flower  opens,  as  if  they  were  anxious  not  to  interfere  with  the  success  of 
the  floral  functions  by  concealing  the  bright  petals  from  the  insect  eye. 

t  Of  the  genus  Ranunculus  there  are  50  species  in  N.  America,  and  at  least  200  in 
the  World.  Their  prevailing  color  is  yellow,  but  some  are  white,  as  the  beautiful 
R.  aconitifdlius  of  the  Alps,  and  the  gardens.  Another,  the  splendid  E.  Asiaticus,  Is 
either  yellow  or  crimson  on  the  hills  of  Palestine.  This  is  the  Garden  Ranunculus 
which  sports  into  innumerable  varieties  of  color,  with  single  or  double  flowers  as 
large  as  a  Rose. 


EANUNCULUS  BULBOSUS. 


53 


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M, 

ORGAN. 

Plant,  L.S.S.Q, 

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Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

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Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

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LOCALITY,  
CLASSIFICATION, 
—Ord 

54  THE    LIVERLEAF. 

construction.     The  letters  following  the  name  of  the  organ 
are  the  initials  of  topics  at  the  head  of  the  tablet. 

Scientific  Terms. — Axial  root.     Inaxial  root.    Keflexed. 


X.   THE   LIVERLEAF. 

Description. —  In  the  rich,  black  mould  of  the  rocky 
woods,  low  among  the  dead  leaves  where  a  snowbank  lately 
lingered,  peeps  up  the  blue  Liverleaf  to  herald,  with  the 
Bluebird,  the  advent  of  Spring.  Nothing  is  visible  but  its 
leaves  and  flowers.  When  lifted  from  its  bed  entire  and  its 
roots  rinsed  clear  of  soil,  the  plant  may  be  placed  in  a  glass 
of  water,  and  examined  at  leisure. 

Analysis. —  The  ffioot  is  inaxial  like  that  of  Ranun- 
culus, consisting  wholly  of  long  branching  fibers. 

The  Stem  is  a  shapeless  body — the  solid  basis  of  the  plant 
under  ground,  whence  spring  the  roots  downward,  and  the 
leaf  and  flower  stalks  upward.  Such  a  stem  is  called  the 
crotvn,  and  the  plant  is  said  to  be  acaulescent  (stemless),  for 
it  has  no  proper  stem.  Plants  with  ordinary  stems  bearing 
the  leaves  and  flowers,  like  the  Crowfoots,  are  said  to  be 
caulescent. 

The  Z/eares  are  of  two  ages,  some  of  the  last  year's 
growth,  and  some  just  arisen.  All  are  supported  on  long, 
hairy  stalks  or  petioles  which  arise  from  the  ground,  appar- 
ently from  the  roots ;  hence  they  are  radical  and  petiolate. 
The  blade  is  firm  and  leathery  in  texture,  that  is,  coriaceous, 
and  is  fashioned  into  3  entire  lobes  (trilobate).  In  the  por- 
trait (Fig.  X)  the  lobes  of  the  leaves  are  obtuse  at  the  apex. 
Is  it  so  in  your  specimen? 

The  VENATION  of  the  blade  is  hand-shaped  or  palmate. 
From  the  end  of  the  petiole  in  the  base  of  the  blade,  3  pri- 
mary veins  diverge,  one  through  each  lobe  to  its  apex. 


HEPATICA. 


55 


FIG.  X.— Hepatica  (or  Anemdne)  triloba  :  1,  a  stamen  seen  in  front ;  2,  —  in  rear  ; 
3,  a  pistil  or  carpel ;  4,  5,  the  ovule,  pendulous,  anatropous  ;  6,  a  section  of  the  seed 
showing  the  2-cotyledoned  embryo  in  large  albumen. 


56  THE    LIVERLEAF. 

From  these  veins  along  each  side  proceed  the  veirilets,  and 
from  the  veinlets  start  out  the  veinulets.  The  latter  form  a 
fine  network  throughout,  and  so  differ  from  the  forked  vein- 
ulets of  the  Ferns  (p.  22).  Hence  this  leaf  is  palmi-vemed 
and  net-veined.  Take  note  also  of  the  persistence  of  the 
leaves.  They  survive  the  frosts  and  snows  of  Winter  until 
after  the  new  leaves  of  the  following  Spring  appear.  Thus 
the  plant  is  evergreen. 

Inflorescence.  The  flowers  are  mounted  each  on  a 
slender  stalk  arising  from  the  crown  with  the  petioles.  Such 
stalks,  bearing  no  true  leaves,  but  flowers  only,  are  called 
scapes.  Near  the  top  of  the  scape,  a  little  below  the  flower, 
is  a  whorl  of  3  little  green  leaves  egg-shaped  or  ovate*  in 
outline.  Are  these  the  sepals  of  the  calyx?  They  are  not 
so  regarded,  for  they  are  remote  from  the  flower.  They  are 
bracts  forming  an  involucre  (involvo,  I  wrap  up). 

The  calyx  resembles  a  corolla.  There  are  6  to  9  colored, 
oblong  or  obovate  sepals,  white  or  delicately  tinged  with 
blue  or  purple.  But  why  is  this  circlet  called  a  calyx  rather 
than  a  corolla?  It  is  so  named  in  accordance  with  a  general 
rule  that  "  the  outer  whorl  of  the  floral  envelopes  shall  be 
regarded  as  the  calyx  whatever  be  its  color."  Hence  the 
corolla  is  wanting  in  this  flower,  as  there  is  no  second  inte- 
rior whorl,  and  the  flower  is  apetalous  (without  petals).  The 
stamens,  pistils  and  fruit  are  so  nearly  like  those  of  Banun- 
culus  that  the  student  will  need  no  repetition  of  the  terms  to 
be  employed  in  their  description. 

The  Ovule  (4,  5)  grows  out  or  is  pendulous  from  the  top 
of  its  cell.  The  stalk  (funiculus)  passes  down  its  side  to  s, 
or  rather  say  the  ovule  is  andtropous,  i.  e.,  turned  or  bent 
over  on  its  stalk.  How  is  it  in  Claytonia  (p.  42)  ? 

*  The  term  ovate  is  employed  in  describing  flat,  expanded  bodies,  like  leaves  ;  ovoid 
is  applicable  to  solids,  such  as  the  bulb. 


HEPATICA. 


57 


Classification. — The  plant  represented  in  Fig.  X,  as 
named  in  our  botanies  generally,  is  Hepatica  triloba  (hepar, 
liver,  triloba,  3-lobed).  The  early  Linnaean  name  (probably 
the  true  one),  was  Anemone  Hepatica.  Our  specimens  may 
be  of  the  other  species,  H.  acutiloba.  In  the  former  the  leaf- 
lobes  and  bracts  are  obtuse  ;  in  the  latter,  acute.  As  we  have 
seen,  Hepatica  is  closely  related  to  Kanunculus,  especially  in 


ORGAN. 

Life,  Habit,  Number,  Place,  Kind,  Construction 

,  &c. 

PLANT. 

if  ,  acaulescent  herb,  3—6'  high. 

ROOT. 

U  ,  of  many  long  branching  fibers. 

STEM. 

Crown  subterranean,  perennial.              [venation  palmate. 

LEAVES. 

Evergreen,  coriaceous,  trilobate,  acute  on  radical 

petioles, 

INFLORESCENCE. 

Scapes  radical,  1-fiowered,  pubescent. 

FLOWER. 

Apetalous,  with  an  involucre  of  3  ovate  bracts. 

Calyx. 

Corolla-like,  light  blue  or  purple. 

Sepals. 

6  —  9,  oblong  or  obovate. 

Corolla. 

Wanting. 

Petals. 

Wanting. 

Stamens. 

GO  ,  hypogynous,  white,  filaments  slender. 

Anthers. 

Oblong,  2-celled.    v 

Pistils. 

oo,  green,  hairy. 

Ovary. 

Oblong,  distinct,  simple. 

Stigma. 

Nearly  sessile,  acute,  style  none. 

FRUIT. 

13  or  more  oblong  achenia  hairy  at  top. 

SEED. 

One  in  each  carpel. 

LOCALITY.—  Dry  woods.    (Date),  April  10,  1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  PHENOGAMIA,,  EXOGENS. 
Order,  RANUNCULACEJE. 
NAME,  Hepatica  ncutiloba. 

58  THE    HUE    ANEMONE. 

the  absolute  freedom  or  distinctness  of  all  its  organs,  and  the 
structure  of  the  stamens,  pistils  and  fruit.  It  must  therefore 
be  included  in  the  same  Tribe  or  Order,  viz.,  Kanunculacese, 
or  the  Crowfoots. 

Scientific  Terms.— Acaulescent.  Apetalous.  Bracts.  Caules- 
cent. Coriaceous.  Evergreen.  Involucre.  Palmi-veined.  Scape. 
Trilobate.  Veinlets.  Veins.  Veinulets. 

XI.  THE   RUE  ANEMONE. 

Description. —  In  April  and  May  the  woods,  while  yet 
leafless,  are  aglow  with  Anemones.  The  species  portrayed 
in  Fig.  XI  continues  long  in  bloom,  developing  its  pure  white 
flowers  in  succession  until  a  full  cluster  is  displayed. 

Analysis. — The  ffiool  is  similar  to  that  of  Claytonia 
(p.  39),  but  instead  of  one  there  are  usually  2  or  3  tubers  of  an 
oblong  form,  with  fibrous  roots  attached.  As  to  its  life  or 
duration,  it  would  seem  to  be  perennial  ( ~4 ). 

The  Stem — its  life,  habit  of  posture  and  branching,  its 
form  and  dimensions  (size)  may  be  considered  and  noted  by 
the  student. 

The  leaves  are  compound,  and  will  furnish  the  principal 
topic  in  this  analysis.  There  is  one  radical  leaf  and  2  or  3 
cauline.  The  former  is  also  petiolate.  The  petiole  divides 
at  the  top  into  3  branches  ( petiolules)  and  these  again  into 
3s — 9  in  all,  each  bearing  a  leaflet.  It  is  therefore  twice  ter- 
nate  or  Hternate.  The  cauline  leaves  are  situated  at  the  top 
of  the  stem  (inv).  Apparently  there  are  6  or  9  simple,  pet- 
iolate leaves  in  a  whorl.  But  the  petioles  are  joined  at  the 
base  into  sets — 3  in  each  set.  Hence  we  conclude  that  there 
are  2  or  3  ternate  or  trifoliate,  sessile  leaves.  The  leaflets 
are  all  similar,  oval,  3-lobed  at  the  end.  Not  unfrequently 
the  radical  leaves  are  thrice  3-parted,  bearing  27  leaflets. 
They  then  become  triternate. 


THE    RUE    ANEMONE. 


59 


The  Inflorescence  is  terminal.     The  leaves  around  it 
may  be  regarded  as  forming  its  involucre.     Several  pedicels, 

each  bearing  a  flower, 
arise  from  a  common 
point  in  the  midst  of 
the  leaves.  Such  an 
arrangement  is  called 
an  umbel  (umbella,  a 
little  shadow),  and 
the  pedicels  are  the 
rays  of  the  umbel. 

The  Flowers  re- 
peat the  apetalous 
habit  of  Hepatica. 
There  is  a  single 
whorl  of  envelopes — 
the  calyx,  composed 
of  5  to  10  distinct, 
elliptical  sepals  of 
dazzling  white.  There 
is  a  crowd  of  stamens, 
with  side-opening  an- 
thers, perfectly  dis- 
tinct and  free;  and  in 
their  midst  appear 
the  6-10  distinct  pis- 
tils. The  close  ob- 
server will  miss  the 


FIG.  XL  — Anemdne  thalictroides  :  1,  a  stamen; 
2,  section  of  flower  ;  3,  fruit. 


nectaries.  *     Neither 


*  The  Kanunculacese  offer  very  remarkable  differences  in  the  manner  of  their 
adaptation  to  insects.  Honey  is  secreted  by  the  petals  in  Ranunculus,  Hellebore, 
Larkspur  and  Columbine  ;  by  the  sepals  in  certain  Paeonies,  by  the  stamens  in  Pulsa- 
tilla,  and  by  the  ovaries  in  Cowslip,  while  it  is  entirely  absent  in  Anemone,  Hepatica, 
and  Thalictrum.  The  flower  is  made  conspicuous  by  the  corolla  in  Ranunculus,  by 
the  calyx  in  Anemone,  by  both  in  Larkspur,  and  by  the  stamens  in  Thalictrum.  The 


60  ANEMONE. 

honey  scales,  nor  glands,  nor  spurs  are  to  be  found  in  this 
flower,  which  is  regular,  apetalous,  polyandrous,  and 
hypogynous. 

The  J^ruit.  After  the  sepals  and  stamens  have  perished, 
the  green  pistils  still  persist  and  ripen  into  a  head  of  distinct 
achenia  which  are  singularly  grooved  and  fluted. 


XII.  THE  WOOD  ANEMONE.       4 

'"''The  coy  Anemonk  that  ne'er  uncloses 
Her  lips  until  they're  blown  on  by  the  Wind." 

Description. — The  Wind  Flower,  as  it  is  frequently 
called,  abounds  in  hilly  woods  and  often  in  company  with 
the  Rue  Anemone.  It  is  a  smaller  plant,  always  one-flow- 
ered, and  about  5'  high  while  the  latter  may  be  9'. 

Analysis. — In  the  ffiootwe  have  a  new  feature.  It  is  a 
slender  creeper,  a  little  fleshy,  growing  just  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  It  is  called  the  root-stock,  or  more 
accurately  the  rhizome.  From  its  joints  fibers  grow  down- 
ward and  stems  upward. 

The  Stem,  slender  but  firm  and  erect,  bears  at  the  top 
3  compound  leaves  forming,  as  it  were,  an  involucre  around 
the  one  large  flower.  There  is  often,  also,  a  radical  leaf  of 
the  same  form.  All  are  petiolate,  palmately  compound,  and 
their  3  (rarely  5)  leaflets  wedge-shaped  (cuneate)  at  the  base, 
cut  into  lobes  and  teeth  above.  They  are  acrid  to  the  taste 
like  the  herbage  of  the  Buttercup.  Sheep  and  goats  will  eat 
them,  however,  while  they  are  refused  by  cattle  and  swine. 

honey  is  easily  accessible  in  Ranunculus  to  all  kinds  of  insects,  yet  the  flower  can 
dispense  with  their  services  and  fertilize  itself  ;  while  in  Larkspur,  where  insect  aid 
is  indispensable,  the  honey  is  stowed  away  in  the  end  of  deep  spurs,  and  accessible 
to  bees  only.  The  stigmas  are  not  matured  until  after  their  own  stamens  have  shed 
their  pollen  ;  then  they  put  themselves  in  the  way  of  the  bees,  to  be  dusted  with  pol- 
len from  other  flowers. 


AKEMOXE. 


61 


The  Inflorescence  is  solitary.  The  one  large  flower 
is  near  of  kin  to  the  foregoing.  It  is  apetalous.  Its  4 — 7 
sepals  are  oval  in  out- 
line, white  and  more  or 
less  tinged  with  pur- 
ple. The  stamens  and 
pistils  will  also  be  iden- 
tified and  denned  by 
the  student.  Why  are 
they  indefinite  ?  Which 
hypogynous  ? 

The  Fruit.  Is  it 
compound,  or  simple  ? 
Of  what  kind?  How 
many  seeds  in  each 
little  fruit  or  carpel? 

The  Name.— Ane- 
mone,* the  generic  ti- 
tle, comes  from  the  Gr. 
animos,  wind.  It  was 
adopted  by  Linnaeus 
from  the  idea  then 
prevalent  that  its  flow- 
ers open  only  when  the 
wind  is  blowing.  The 
specific  name  of  the 
Rue  Anemone  is  A.  tlialictroldes,  so  called  for  its  resem- 
blance to  Thalictrum,  the  Meadow  Rue.f  Of  the  Wood 


FIG.  XTI.— Anemdne  nemordsa  :  1,  a  head 
of  ripe  carpels  ;  2,  a  single  carpel— achenium. 


*  So  accented  according  to  the  Latin  prosody;  but  as  an  English  word  it  is 
Anemone. 

t  This  plant  has  long  hung  trembling  between  the  two  genera  Anemone  and  Tha- 
lictrum. Its  involucre  and  flowers  are  those  of  Anemone  ;  its  leaflets  and  achenia  like 
those  of  Thalictrum.  Linna3us  named  it  as  above.  Michaux  called  it  Thalictram 
anemonoides. 


62  THE    WOOD    ANEMONE. 

Anemone,  A.  nemorbsa  (minus,  a  grove)  is  the  specific 
name.  * 

In  the  Meadow  Rue,  the  minute  sepals  fall  off  as  soon  as 
the  flower  opens.  But  the  stamens  are  enlarged  and  their 
anthers  yellow.  Thus  a  little  floral  economy  does  away  with 
the  necessity  of  the  usual  attractive  floral  envelopes. 

Classification.— The  next  inquiry  is,  To  what  order  do 
the  Anemonies  and  Hepaticas  belong  ?  With  stamens  poly- 
androus,  hyp6gynous,  and  pistils  distinct,  forming  simple, 
unconnected  fruits,  they  agree  with  the  Crowfoots,  and  their 
order  is  RANUNCULACE^. 

The  Order  of  the  Crowfoots  (Ranunculaceae)  embraces 
in  all  about  40  genera  and  1000  species.  From  the  fore- 
going and  other  examples,  we  deduce  the  following  brief  for- 
mula of  its  character: 

1.  Plants  with  a  colorless,  acrid  juice. 

2.  Leaves  reticulate-veined,  never  peltate. 

3.  Flowers  with  their  members  all  free  and  distinct. 

4.  Sepals,  or  petals,  3 — 15,  equal  or  unequal. 

5.  Stamens  indefinite,  hypogynous. 

6.  Pistils  few  or  many,  distinct,  oblique. 

7.  Fruit  a  few  or  many  achenia,  pods,  or  berries. 

The  Crowfoots  delight  in  cool,  damp  climates.  Their 
juices,  generally  acrid,  are  strong  enough  in  some  Butter- 


*  The  genus  Anemone  is  large  and  interesting.  Sixty  kinds  inhabit  the  N.  Tem- 
perate Zone  in  both  Continents.  In  the  United  States,  from  Sea  to  Sea,  some  20 
species  flourish.  The  Pasque  Flower,  Nuttall's  Pulsatilla,  in  Illinois  and  the  North- 
west, is  the  most  curious  of  them  all.  Its  bluish  blossoms,  as  large  as  a  Rose,  open  in 
early  April;  after  them  the  leaves,  cut  into  many  slender  segments  and  clothed  with 
long  silky  hairs,  spread  themselves,  while  the  ripened  achenia,  fledged  with  feathery 
tails,  take  flight  on  the  wind  to  new  and  distant  homes.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  formerly  the  custom  in  England  to  use  this,  as  well  as  other  wild  flow- 
ers in  staining  Eggs  for  Easter-gifts,  called  Pasque  Eggs. 

Many  grades  and  styles  of  beauty  are  represented  in  this  genus,  from  the  humble 
Wood  Anemone  upward,  culminating  in  the  Royal  Anemone  of  Palestine  (A.  corona- 
ria),  one  of  the  "  Lilies  of  the  field  "  arrayed  in  more  than  Solomon's  glory.  Its  leaves 
are  delicately  cut  and  fringed,  and  its  flowers,  broad  as  the  hand,  shine  in  Tyrian 
purple. 


ANEMONE. 


63 


ANALYSIS   OF   AN   ANEMONE. 


ORGAN. 

Life,  Habit,  dumber,  Place,  Ztehiscence,  K  ind,  Construc- 
tion, .Form,  Placentation,  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

11,  herb  6-10'  high,  generally  smooth. 

Root,  L.K. 

if.  ,  oolong  starchy  tubers  with  fibers  attached. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Annual,  an  erect,  simple,  terete  caulis. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

1  radical,  biternate,  2  cauline,  ternate,  sessile,  Ifts.  3-lobed. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Terminal,  umbettate,  involucrate. 

Flower,  N.C. 

3-7,  regular,  apetalous,  hypogynous. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Rose-form,  petaloid,  white. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  5-10,  spreading,  elliptical,  imbricated. 

Corolla.  F.Q. 

None. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

None. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

q,,  hypogynous,  distinct,  filament  club-shaped  (clavate). 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

Oval,  2-lobed,  opening  laterally,  innate. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

None,  or  very  short. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

6-10,  sessile,  simple. 

1  Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Distinct,  simple,  oblong,  with  1  suspended  ovule. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

Achenia  6-10,  smooth,  fluted,  otofrd. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

1  in  each  carpel,  albuminous,  emb.  2-lobed. 

LOCALITY.—  Woods,  Worcester,  Mass.    (Date),  May  8,  1870. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  PHENOGAMIA  ;  EXOGENS. 
OBDER.—  RANUNCULACE^E,  or  the  CROWFOOTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Anemone  thalictroides. 

—English,  Rue  Anemone. 
REMARKS.—  The  cauline  leaves  serve  as  an  involucre. 

64  THE    BLOOPKOOT. 

cups  to  blister  the  skin,  and  become  actively  medicinal  and 
poisonous  in  Aconite  and  Hellebore.  Their  flowers  are  gen- 
erally ornamental,  of  various  styles  of  beauty  in  Clematis, 
Adonis,  Kanunculus,  Anemone,  Columbine,  Larkspur, 
Monk's-hood,  and  culminating  in  the  splendid  Paeony. 

The  Record. —  Let  the  student  now  enter  in  the  tablets 
of  the  Plant  Record,  or  such  as  he  may  himself  prepare,  the 
analysis  of  the  Anemonies.  In  doing  it,  the  presence  of  the 
plant  itself  is  indispensable,  together  with  the  foregoing- 
instructions,  and  also  a  frequent  reference  to  the  Illustrated 
Glossary. 

Scientific  Terms  (defined  in  XI  and  XII). — Biternate.  Compound 
leaves.  Cuneate.  Generic.  Leaflet.  Palmate.  Petiolule.  Rays. 
Rhizome.  Specific.  Ternate.  Trifoliate.  Triternate.  Umbel. 


XIII.  THE  BLOODROOT. 

Description.  —  Some  sunny  morning  in  Spring,  in 
woody  vales  along  the  banks  of  a  purling  brook,  or  the 
track  of  a  hidden  streamlet,  we  may  surprise  in  bloom  the 
bright,  frail  flowers  of  the  Bloodroot.  The  plant  is  remark- 
ably simple  in  its  portrait,  smooth  and  glaucous  in  surface. 

Analysis. — The  ffioot  consists  of  fibers  and  fibrils  only, 
for  we  must  consider  that  thick,  fleshy  body  (/•/*),  although 
underground, 

The  Stem  ;  there  is  no  other.  It  is  a  true  rhizome  or 
root-stock,  growing  horizontally,  filled  and  reeking  with  a 
blood-red,  acrid,  medicinal  juice.*  From  its  joints  or  off- 

*  In  lifting  this  plant  from  its  bed,  one  is  forcibly  reminded  of  tbe  sad  experience 
of  JSneas  at  the  grave  of  Polydore  (^Eneid,  Book  III). 

I  pulled  a  plant— with  horror  I  relate 
A  prodigy  so  strange,  and  full  of  fate  ! 
The  rooted  fibers  rose,  and  from  the  wound 
Black  bloody  drous  distilled  upon  the  ground. 


SANGUINAKIA. 


65 


FIG.  XIII.— Sanguinaria  Canadensis*:  1,  2,  stamens;  3,  the  pistil ;  4,  pistil  dis- 
sected ;  5,  an  ovule  anatropous  ;  6,  the  capsule  opening ;  7,  seed  ;  8,  seed  dissected, 
both  crested  ;  9,  the  embryo. 

*  Generic  names  are  nouns,  and  should  always  begin  with  a  Capital.  Specific 
names  are  generally  adjectives,  and  should  never  begin  with  a  capital  except  when 
derived  from  (1)  a  country,  or  (2)  a  person,  or  (3)  when  they  are  nouns  ;  as  (1)  San- 
guinaria  Canadensis,  (2)  Osmunda  Claytoniana,  (3)  Papaver  Eheas. 


66  THE    BLOODEOOT. 

sets  here  and  there,  a  bud  issues  and  sends  up  a  leaf  and  a 
flower — the  whole  visible  plant.  The  term  acaulescent  is 
applicable  to  the  Bloodroot  as  well  as  to  Hepatica,  it  being 
apparently  stemless. 

The  JLeaf  comes  up  from  the  ground  lovingly  embracing 
the  flower-bud  like  a  cloak.  In  the  bud  both  together  were 
enveloped  in  the  membranous  scales  (sc)  which  now  surround 
the  base  of  the  stalks.  The  rounded  blade  is  conspicuously 
palmi-veined  and  netted,  its  margin  lobed,  with  rounded 
sinuses  between  the  lobes,  and  its  base  cordate  (heart-shaped) 
with  a  deep  recess. 

The  Flower  loses  its  two  green  caducous  sepals  as  soon 
as  it  opens.  The  pure-white  petals,  open  only  in  the  sun- 
shine, are  soon  deciduous.  The  4  interior  are  shorter  than 
the  4  exterior,  giving  the  expanded  corolla  the  form  of  a 
square.  The  stamens,  about  24  in  number,  are  hyp6gynous. 

The  Fruit*  A  pistil  evidently  composed  of  2  united 
carpels,  having  a  double,  sessile  stigma  (3,  4)  occupies  the 
center  of  the  flower.  It  becomes  in  fruit  an  oblong  capsule 
with  a  single  cell.  Two  lines  run  lengthwise  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  ovary  or  pod  (3)  marking  the  conjoined  edges  of 
the  carpels.  We  will  call  these  the  sutures  (sutura,  a  seam). 
Within  the  cell  are  two  corresponding  lines  or  ridges  to  which 
the  seeds  are  attached  ;  term  these  the  placentae  ;  and  being 
located  on  the  wall  (paries)  of  the  cell,  parietal  placenta?.* 
It  contains  many  seeds,  and  finally  opens  by  2  equal  valves 
which  break  away  from  the  placentae  and  leave  them  still  in 
place  (6).  See  how  the  ovule  (5)  is  bent  over  and  adhering 
to  its  stalk  (andtropous).  Notice  in  the  seed  (7)  its  promi- 
nent and  singular  crest  (c)  and  the  2-lobed  (dicotyledonous) 
embryo  (8,  9)  in  the  end  of  the  large  albumen. 

*  Observe  that  in  ErythrOnium  the  placentae  are  central. 


SANGUINARIA. 


67 


The  Name. — This  genus  is  appropriately  named  San- 
guindria  (sanguis,  blood);  and  as  Linnaeus  obtained  his  first 
specimen  from  Canada,  he  made  its  specific  name  8.  Cana- 
densis.  It  is  the  only  species  yet  known. 

Classification. — We  find  in  this  plant  a  new  combina- 
tion of  characters — a  colored  juice,  a  flower  2  or  4-parted,  a 

ANALYSIS   OF   BLOODROOT. 


OKGAN. 

Life,  Habit,  Number,  Place,  Dehiscence,  Kind,  &c. 

PLANT. 

U  ,  acaulescent,  6—10'  high,  smooth,  glaucous. 

ROOT. 

fibrous,  growing  from  the  thick  root-stock. 

STEM. 

A  rhizome,  horizontal,  full  of  a  red  acrid  juice. 

LEAVES. 

Solitary,  radical,  palmately  7—9-lobed,  petiolate. 

INFLORESCENCE. 

Solitary,  radical,  bud  infolded  by  the  leaf. 

FLOWER. 

One,  on  a  scape,  whttt,  perfect,  complete. 

Calyx. 

Qreen,  very  smooth. 

Sepals. 

Caducous,  2,  imbricate  in  bud. 

Corolla. 

Square  in  outline,  white,  double. 

Petals. 

3,  in  %  rows,  oblanceolate,  wide-spread. 

Stamens. 

2If,  hypogynous,  with  slender  filaments. 

Anther. 

Innate,  oblong,  yellow. 

Pistil. 

Double,  of  2  carpels,  green. 

Stigmas. 

2,  sessile  or  style  very  short. 

Ovary. 

Tapering  at  both,  ends,  ovules  in  2  rows. 

FRUIT. 

Capsule  turgid,  1'  long,  1-celled,  2-valved. 

SEEDS. 

oo  ,  round,  crested  on  one  side,  reddish  brown. 

LOCALITY—  Damp  woody  vales.    (Date),  April  10,  1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  PHENOGAMIA,  POLYPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
Order,  PAPAVERACE^E  POPPYWORTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Sanguiiiaria  Canatlensis. 

68  THE    POPPY. 

caducous  calyx,  numerous  Jiypogynous  stamens,  and  a  com- 
pound 1-celled  capsule.  Let  these  be  remembered  as  the 
marks  of  the  Order,  which  will  be  named  in  the  next  lesson. 
The  Record  (on  page  67)  should  be  used  by  the  learner 
not  to  copy,  but  for  comparison  with  his  own,  previously 
and  independently  sketched  ;  also  as  a  guide  in  the  record 
of  the  Poppy  and  other  similar  plants. 


XIV.  THE  POPPY. 

Description. — Toward  the  end  of  May  some  of  the  Pop- 
pies may  be  found  in  bloom  in  gardens  and  fields.  Their 
graceful  form  attracts  the  eye,  while  the  richness  of  their 
scarlet  tint  harmonizes  with  the  green  verdure  around.  Their 
own  verdure  is  sea-green,  somewhat  hairy,  and  like  the 
Bloodroot,  contains  a  colored  juice — white  instead  of  red. 
The  Poppy  never  springs  from  the  last  year's  root,  but  from 
the  seed  alone,  flowering,  fruiting,  and  perishing,  all  in  one 
season.  It  is  therefore  an  annual  herb  (often  thus  denoted  ® ). 
The  Bloodroot  with  its  ever-growing  rhizome  is  necessarily 
perennial  (2£). 

Analysis. — The  root  is  axial  (p.  50) — a  tap-root  growing 
from  the  seed  downward,  branching,  tapering. 

The  Stem  stands  firmly  erect,  terete,  somewhat  branch- 
ing, and  with  bristly  spreading  hairs. 

The  Z/eares  are  cauline,  sessile,  pinni-veined,  and  oblong 
in  general  outline,  with  the  margin  more  or  less  lobed,  or 
divided  into  segments  (pinnatifid). 

The  Flowers  are  few  and  large,  each  supported  on  a 
stout  peduncle,  nodding  in  the  bud  (#),  finally  erect.  The 

*  These  notes  apply  only  to  the  natural,  single,  or  simple-ftowereA  Poppy.  Should 
the  specimens  have  double  fiowers,  they  will  open  a  new  field  of  inquiry,  for  which 
see  the  lesson  on  the  Rose  (XXVIII). 


PAPAVER. 


69 


Ite.  XIV.— Papaver  Rheas  :  1,  the  fruit. 


70  THE    POPPY. 

calyx  is  like  that  of  Sanguinaria.  The  corolla  (white  or 
red)  consists  of  4  broad  petals,  thin  and  fragile,  crumpled 
in  the  bud  and  opening  convulsively.  *  The  stamens  are  as 
in  Sanguinaria,  but  more  numerous.  There  is  but  one  pis- 
til, a  large,  turgid,  green  ovary  capped  by  a  broad,  sessile 
stigma,  with  no  style.  The  rays  marking  the  top  of  the 
stigma,  indicate  so  many  simple  stigmas  and  carpels  united 
into  this  one  compound  pistil. 

The  Fruit  is  a  capsule,  1 -celled,  crowned  with  the  broad, 
persistent  stigma.  It  opens  by  as  many  little  valves  under 
the  margin  of  the  stigma  as  it  has  rays — one  to  each  carpel, 
for  the  escape  of  the  seeds.  These  are  exceedingly  small 
and  numerous.  Linnaeus  counted  10,000  in  a  single 
capsule. 

The  Name  of  the  Poppy  family  is  the  ancient  Koman 
one,  Papaver.  It  is  said  to  come  from  papa,  the  Celtic 
word  for  pap,  because  its  capsules  were  formerly  given  to 
infants  with  their  food  as  a  soporific.  Among  the  30  species 
of  the  Poppy,  red  is  the  prevailing  color.  Three  kinds,  at 
least,  with  large,  brilliant  scarlet  or  crimson  petals  frequent 
our  gardens  and  fields.  One  of  these,  P.  Rlieas,  the  Corn 
Poppy,  is  portrayed  in  Fig.  XIV.  f  Another  species,  the 
Opium  Poppy,  has  white  flowers.  It  is  appropriately 
named  P.  somniferum  (somnus,  sleep,  fero,  I  bear). 

The  Order  or  tribe  of  the  Poppyworts — PAPAVEKACE^:, 

*  These  petals  are  so  delicate  that  even  when  we  cut  them  with  scissors  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  keep  them  from  crumpling.  But  the  Poppy  bee  having  dug  a 
hole  three  inches  deep  in  the  ground  and  smoothed  and  polished  the  sides,  hangs  the 
walls  of  its  little  home  with  tapestry,  using  these  Poppy  petals,  which  it  employs 
with  so  much  skill  that  they  are  smooth  as  glass. 

t  The  Ancients  believed  that  the  presence  of  the  Corn  Poppy  in  their  fields  was 
necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  the  Corn  (Wheat) ;  hence  the  seeds  were  among  the 
sacred  offerings  to  Ceres,  and  her  garlands  were  composed  of  Wheat-stalks  with  their 
bearded  heads  intertwined  with  Red  Poppies.  "  The  term  rheas,"  says  William  Tur- 
ner, who  wrote  in  1551,  "is  given  because  the  flower  fallith  awaie  hastilie."  This 
Poppy  is  so  abundant  in  England  that  it  is  dreaded  by  the  farmers  as  a  pestiferous 
weed. 


VIOLA.  71 

includes  20  genera  and  150  species,  chiefly  natives  of  the  N. 
Temperate  Zone,  briefly  characterized  as  follows  : 

Herbs  with  colored  or  milky  juice. 

Flowers  2  or  4-parted,  polyandrous,  hypogynous. 

Sepals  fugacious. 

Ovary  compound,  1-celled. 

Fruit  a  dry  pod,  with  parietal  placentae. 

The  POPPYWORTS  all  possess  narcotic  properties  in  their  juice,  but 
not  in  their  seeds.  The  milky  white  juice  of  the  Opium  Poppy,  when 
extracted  and  dried,  becomes  the  opium  of  commerce.* 

The  California  Poppy  (EschscTioltzia),  a  showy  garden  annual,  is  so 
abundant  on  the  hillsides  of  California  as  to  paint  them  with  its  own 
yellow-orange  color  visible  far  out  on  the  Sea. 

The  Celandine  (Ghelidonium  majus),  from  Europe,  grows  in  road- 
sides and  waste  places.  Its  saffron-colored  juice  is  said,  when  faith- 
fully applied,  to  kill  warts. 

Scientific  Terms. — Annual  herb.  Caducous.  Crest.  Dicotyle- 
donous. Glaucous.  Placentae  central.  Placentas  parietal.  Rhizome. 
Sinus.  Sutures.  Tap-root. 

XV.  THE  VIOLETS. 

Description.— Who  does  not  know  and  love  the  Vio- 
lets ?  Early  or  late  in  spring,  in  all  our  rambles,  they  greet 
us  with  their  quaint  and  cheerful  faces — the  yellow  in  the 
rocky  woods,  the  white  in  boggy  swamps,  and  the  blue 
everywhere.!  With  specimens  in  profusion,  let  us  first 

*  The  narcotic  properties  of  the  Poppy  must  have  been  early  known,  for  in  ancient 
Greece  the  god  of  sleep  was  figured  as  reclining  on  a  bed  of  its  snowy  blossoms,  and 
grasping  them  in  his  motionless  hand.  In  the  East  the  Poppy  attains  a  greater  lux- 
uriance, and  its  white  juice  is  more  abundant  than  in  our  colder  climate.  The  pro- 
cess of  collecting  the  opium  to-day  is  the  same  as  described  by  Dioscorides  many 
centuries  ago.  At  sunset  incisions  are  made  in  the  half-ripened  capsules.  During 
the  night  the  juice  exudes  and  collects  in  globules  outside.  The  next  morning  these 
are  scraped  off,  thickened  in  the  sun,  and  shaped  by  the  hand  into  balls.  The  seeds 
are  not  injured  by  the  flow  of  the  juice,  and  make  a  second  harvest.  They  contain 
no  opium,  but  are  rich  in  oil,  which,  as  an  article  of  diet,  is  nearly  as  good  as  the 
Oil  of  Olives. 

+  History  tells  us  how  in  all  ages  the  Violet  has  been  prized.  Athens  honored  it 
with  the  first  place  in  floral  wreaths.  An  ancient  poet  speaks  of  "living  in  Violet- 


THE  VIOLETS. 


FIG.  XV.— Viola  cucullata  :  1,  the  corolla  displayed  ;  2,  the  odd  petal ;  3,  the  sta- 
mens, &c. ;  4,  the  ovary  and  style  ;  5,  section  of  a  seed  ;  6,  section  of  a  flower  of  V. 
rotundifolia  ;  7,  section  of  ovary ;  8,  the  capsule  wide  open,  the  valves  covered  with 


crowned  Athens."  The  Romans  had  their  "  Dies  Violaris,"— the  day  devoted  to 
decking  the  graves  with  flowers.  An  old  English  herbalist  says,  "  Verie  manie  of 
these  violets  receive  ornament  and  comelie  grace,  for  there  be  made  of  them  gar- 
lands for  the  head,  nosegaies  and  posies,  which stirre  up  a  man  to  that  which  is 

comely  and  honest."    Who  cannot  respond  to  these  lines  of  Willis  : 

1 '  There  is  to  me 

A  daintiness  about  these  early  flowers 
That  touches  me  like  poetry.    They  bloom 
With  such  a  simple  loveliness  among 
The  common  herbs  of  pasture,  and  breathe  out 
Their  loves  so  unobtrusively,  like  hearts 
Whose  beatings  are  too  gentle  for  this  world." 


VIOLA.  73 

examine  the  blue.  Like  Hepatica,  this  Violet  is  a  peren- 
nial, acaulescent  herb.  According  to  its  locality,  it  is 
smooth  (glabrous)  or  hairy,  the  latter  in  poorer  soil. 

Analysis. — From  what  the  learner  has  already  seen,  he 
will  easily  characterize  the  root,  stem,  and  scapes.  But  in 
the  leaf  and  flower  several  new  features  will  appear. 

The  .Leaves  are  borne  on  long  petioles,  springing  from 
the  underground  stem,  and  each  petiole  is  embraced  at  its 
base  by  a  pair  of  narrow  linear  scales.  The  nature  of  these 
appendages  will  be  better  understood  hereafter  (p.  75). 
The  blade  is  rolled  inward  at  the  base,  so  as  to  imitate  the 
form  of  a  hood  (cucullus) ;  hence  the  leaf  is  cucullate. 
When  spread  out,  as  in  dried  specimens,  the  blade  is  as 
broad  or  broader  than  long.  A  sinus  or  recess  at  the  base, 
where  it  joins  the  petiole,  makes  it  cordate  (heart-shaped)  or 
reniform  (kidney-shaped).  The  margins  are  usually  crenate 
(notched) — i.  e.,  wrought  into  small  rounded  notches.  But 
in  this  they  greatly  vary,  being  sometimes  found  divided, 
more  or  less  deeply,  in  five  to  nine  lobes.  As  to  venation, 
are  they  pinni-veined,  or  palmi-veined  ? 

Inflorescence. — The  flower-stalks  or  scapes  are  two- 
bracted  about  midway,  and  recurved  at  the  top,  so  that  the 
flowers  are  nodding,  and  resupinate  (inverted). 

The  Flowers  hitherto  studied  are  regular ;  that  is,  they 
have  the  same  form  and  look  on  every  side.  But  the 
flowers  of  the  Violet  are  irregular,  being  oblique  or  one- 
sided. This  is  due  to  the  inequality  of  the  five  petals. 
They  differ  in  shape,  size,  color,  and  posture,  and  are 
assorted  into  two  pairs  and  an  odd  one — the  upper  (lower 
by  resupination),  which  is  protruded  behind  into  a  blunt 
sack  or  spur  (2).  All  are  blue,  with  a  yellow  and  pencilled 
base,  and  the  lateral  ones  are  broadest  and  bearded.  The 
five  green  sepals  are  each  extended  behind  into  an  ear- 
4 


THE    GARDEK   VIOLETS. 


shaped  lobe ;  that  is,  they  are  auriculate  (auricula,  a  little 
ear).  The  five  stamens  are  oddly  constructed  (3).  Hitherto 
we  have  seen  the  anther  as  in  the  Crowfoots,  innate,  i.  e., 
home  on  the  top  of  the  filament ;  but  here  it  is  adnate, 
i.  e.,  attached  to  the  side  of  the  filament  below  the  top. 
Then  two  of  the  filaments  project  a  little  spur  into  the  spur 
of  the  odd  petal ! 

The  Fruit.  The  club-shaped  style  bears  an  oblique, 
hood-shaped  stigma.  The  1-celled  ovary  ripens  into  a 
1-celled,  3-valved  capsule  with  three  parietal  placentae. 
(See  page  66.)  When  the  valves  open  they  display  each  a 
placenta  along  its  middle  covered  with  seeds.  Why  is  the 
seed  (5)  anatropous?  Why  dico- 
tyledonous? What  is  the  ratio  of 
the  albumen  and  the  embryo  ? 

Cleislogen  e  Flowers .  — The 
early  flowers  just  described  seem 
to  be  intended  chiefly  for  display, 
as  they  often  prove  infertile.  Later 
in  the  season  the  plant  produces 
flowers  on  very  short  scapes,  hid- 
den beneath  the  leaves,  or  even  in 
the  soil,  destitute  of  petals,  but 
always  fertile  (See  (9),  where  a  is  a 
flower,  b  a  fruit).  Such  flowers  are  cleistogene  (never  open), 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  their  anthers  produce  but  few 
grains  of  pollen,  barely  one  to  each  ovule.* 


9,  Cleistogene  flowers  of 
V.  cucullata. 


*  Here  is  illustrated  the  economy  of  Nature,  at  one  time  lavish,  at  another  frugal, 
but  always  for  a  reason.  When  the  pollen  is  to  he  carried  hy  chance  insects,  or  per- 
haps by  the  wind  to  distant  flowers,  an  immense  amount  must  needs  be  wasted.  But 
when  it  is  confined  in  the  closed  flower,  a  very  little  answers  the  purpose.  In  this 
case  there  is  no  need  of  insect  help,  and  consequently  the  flowers  have  no  tall  stem 
to  push  them  out  into  notice,  no  fragrance,  no  color,  no  honey,  and  indeed  no  petals. 
Yet  they  often  bear  more  seeds  than  the  so-called  flowers.  There  is  something 
almost  human  in  the  self-sacrifice  of  these  flowers  to  sheer  duty. 


VIOLA. 

XVI.  THE  GARDEN   VIOLET. 

Description. — That  the  Garden  Violet  has  long  been  a 
general  favorite  is  shown  by  the  variety  of  names  it  bears, 
such  as  Pansy  (Fr.  pensee,  thought),  Tricolor,  Heartsease, 
Lady's-delight.  We  find  it  not  only  in  gardens,  but  grow- 
ing wild  in  fields  and  woods.* 

Analysis. — The  ffiool  growing  downward,  branches 
into  innumerable  thread-like  fibers,  which  are  annually 
renewed,  while  as  a  whole  it  is  perennial. 

The  Stem  arises  above  ground  6-12',  is  angular,  gen- 
erally glabrous,  with  the  branches  curved  upward,  leafy 
throughout. 

The  Z/eares  are  pinni-veined,  ovate  or  oval,  crenate, 
obtuse,  and  the  petiole  bears  at  its  base  a  pair  of  conspicu- 
ous appendages,  much  larger  than  those  in  the  Blue  Violet 


FIG.  XVI.— Viola  tricolor  :  2,  a  leaf  and  stipules  displayed. 

(p.  71),  although  of  the  same  nature.  These  are  called 
stipules,  an  organ  which  distinguishes  all  the  Violets,  and 
many  other  families  ;  also  some  whole  tribes,  as  the  Rose- 

*  We  once  (A.  D.  1866)  crossed  a  broad  plain  in  central  Oregon  literally  covered 
With  wild  Pansiee. 


THE   GARDEH  VIOLET. 


ANALYSIS    OF   A  VIOLET. 


ORGAN. 

Life,  Habit,  Number,  Place,  Dehiscence,  Kind,  &c. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

y.  herb  acaulescent,  6-12'.  smooth. 

Root,  L.K. 

Vr  an  axis  or  root-stock  branching  into  fibers. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

A  subterranean  crown  or  rhizome. 

Leaves,  L.RC.P.S.Q. 

O  on  long,  radical  petioles,  cucullate,  cordate,  palmi-veined, 
crenate,  stipulate. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Scapes  each  1-fiowered,  with  %  bracts. 

Flower,  N.C.P. 

Perfect,  complete,  nodding,  some  apetalous. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Irregular,  green. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Persistent,  5,  lance-ovate,  auriculate. 

Carolla,  F.Q. 

Irregular,  chiefly  violet-blue. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  5,  imbricated,  %-bearded,  1-spurred. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

5,  hypogynous,  with  short  broad  filaments. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

Adnate,  introrse. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

1,  oblique,  club-shaped. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

1,  turned  to  one  side,  with  a  beak. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Triple,  ovoid,  1-celled,  parietal. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

1,  open  by  3  valves,  capsule,  ovoid,  smooth. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

°o,  anatropous,  ovoid,  brown,  appendaged. 

LOCALITY.—  Fields,  meadows.    (Date),  April  SO,  1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  PHENOGAMIA,  POLYPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
Order,  VIOLACE^. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Viola  cucullata. 

—English,  Hood-leaved  Violet. 

worts.  Stipules  always  appear  in  pairs  and  attached  to  the 
base  of  the  petiole.  In  shape  they  are  as  various  as  the 
leaves.  Those  of  the  Pansy  are  cleft  into  several  segments, 
of  which  the  terminal  is  the  largest— a  form  called  lyrate, 


VIOLA.  77 

or  lyrate-pinnatifid.  Contrast  these  with  the  stipules  of  the 
Blue  Violet. 

The  Flowers,  in  their  garden  dress,  are  a  perpetual 
charm,  sporting  into  varieties  infinite,  yet  always  with 
"method  in  their  madness."  In  their  wild  or  ordinary  state, 
they  are  definitely  tri-colored,*  with  one  petal  yellow,  two 
white,  and  two  of  that  peculiar  deep  rich  purple  known  as 
violet,  one  of  the  tints  of  the  rainbow.  By  cultivation  the 
petals  may  be  enlarged  tenfold,  and  their  three  native 
colors  strangely  mixed  and  confounded.  Comparing  this 
flower  with  the  Blue  Violet,  why  is  it  resupinate  ?  Why 
irregular  ?  Which  petal  is  spurred,  the  lower  or  upper  ? 
Which  are  violet-colored  ?  Why  are  the  sepals  auricu- 
late  ?  Which  stamens  are  spurred  ?  Why  are  the  anthers 
adnate  ?  Being  caulescent,  this  Violet  develops  no  cleisto- 
gene  flowers. 

The  Name. —  Viola,  the  ancient  Latin  name  of  these 
plants, f  is  adopted  in  modern  science  as  that  of  the  genus. 
It  includes  150  species.  The  Blue  Violet  is  V.  cucullata;  the 
Pansy,  V.  tricolor — both  names  suggestive  of  their  leading 
characteristics.  The  Violets  of  S.  America  are  shrubs. 

The  Order  VIOLACE^E,  the  Violetworts,  includes  the 
genus  Viola,  and  ten  kindred  genera,  one  of  which,  Solea, 
grows  in  the  woods  of  New  York,  westward  and  southward. 

Many  of  the  Violets,  especially  those  of  S.  America,  possess  valua- 
ble medicinal  properties.  lonidium  Itubu,  called  Poaya  in  Peru,  is 

*  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  when  all  the  petals  of  a  flower  are  equal  in  size  and 
shape,  they  are  also  equally  colored  and  streaked  ;  but  as  soon  as  one  petal  is  enlarged 
for  any  special  purpose,  a  change  of  color  or  adornment  generally  ensues.  Thus  in 
the  Violets,  especially  in  the  Pansy,  the  lower  petal  forms  an  alighting  place  for  the 
insect,  and  is  more  brightly  colored  than  the  rest  of  the  flower — a  door-step  whence 
the  color  lines  lead  directly  to  the  honey  trove  within,  and  in  getting  it  the  bee  is 
sure  to  be  dusted  with  the  pollen. 

t  In  ancient  fable,  lo,  the  daughter  of  Atlas,  fleeing  from  Apollo,  escaped  to  the 
woods,  where,  by  the  power  of  Diana,  she  was  changed  into  a  Violet,  which  even  now 
modestly  avoids  the  gaze  of  Phoebus  by  hiding  her  face  in  her  own  leaves. 


78  CHICKWEED. 

one  of  the  sources  of  Ipecac.  Our  native  V.  ovata  is  a  reputed  remedy 
for  the  bite  of  the  Rattlesnake.  The  common  Sweet  Violet  of  the  con- 
servatories (V.  odorata),  the  Ion  of  the  Greeks,  is  famed  for  its  fra- 
grance. Its  root  is  purgative,  and  employed  in  making  the  Syrup  of 
Violets.  The  blue  infusion  of  its  flowers  is  employed  by  the  French 
in  numerous  confections,  and  it  also  furnishes  a  chemical  test,  turning 
green  with  an  alkali  and  red  with  an  acid. 

Scientific  Terms. — Adnate  anther.  Cleistogene  flower.  Cordate. 
Crenate.  Cucullate.  Irregular  flower.  Innate  anther.  Lyrate.  Ly- 
rate-pinnatifid.  Reniform.  Regular.  Spur.  Stipules.  Auriculate. 

XVII.  CHICKWEED. 

History. — We  have  before  us  a  plant,  humble  in  appear- 
ance,, but  of  noble  lineage  and  truly  cosmopolitan.  It  is  a 
common  weed  everywhere  north  of  Mexico,  and  is  abundant 
in  Europe,  whence  it  is  supposed  to  have  emigrated  hither. 
It  delights  in  cool,  shady  places  on  cultivated  ground,  and 
blossoms  from  the  beginning  of  Spring  to  the  end  of 
Autumn. 

Analysis. —  THE  LEAF  EEGIOK. — The  root  is  annual 
and  fibrous.  The  stem  is  slender  and  weak,  and  therefore 
prostrate  or  but  half  erect,  nearly  1  foot  long,  with  distinct 
nodes  (joints),  and  terete  internodes  (p.  85),  which  are  singu- 
larly distinguished  by  a  hairy  line  which  changes  sides  at 
each  joint.  Its  branches  are  like  forks — dicliotomous.  The 
leaves  are  ovate,  smooth,  entire,  two  at  each  node  and  oppo- 
site, 1'  in  length,  mostly  petiolate.* 

The  Inflorescence  proceeds  in  the  following  order  : 
1st,  the  stem  early  terminates  in  a  flower  ;  3d,  a  pair  of 
branches  arises  from  the  axils  of  the  upper  pair  of  leaves 


*  It  is  curious  to  note  how,  as  the  chill  of  night  comes  on,  the  leaves  fold  together 
in  pair.*,  enclosing  the  tender  germ  of  the  young  shoot  at  the  axil ;  while  the  upper 
pair  but  one  is  larger  than  the  others  and  covers  over  the  last  pair,  so  securing  the 
end  of  the  branch. 


STELLA  RIA. 


79 


and  each  terminates  in  a  flower,  leaving  the  first  flower  in 
the  fork ;  3d,  the  same  process  is  repeated  in  each  of  these 
branches,  the  2  secondary  flowers  being  left  below,  each  in 
a  fork  like  the  first,  and  so  on  to  the  last.  Thus  the  central 
flower  is  the  oldest,  and  the  inflorescence  is  centrifugal. 

The  Flower  may  always  be  seen  when  the  sun  is  shin- 
ing, looking  like  a  little  star  among  the  green  leaves.  It  is 
regular,  perfect,  5-parted,  pedunculate.  The  green,  hairy 


FIG.  XVII.  -  Stellaria 
media  :  1,  a  flower ;  2, 
calyx  with  fruit ;  3,  sec- 
tion of  a  flower ;  6,  sta- 
mens and  pistil ;  5,  seeds 
heaped  on  the  placenta  ; 
4,  section  of  a  seed. 


calyx  is  larger  than  the  white  corolla.  The  sepals  are  lance- 
olate and  quite  distinct  from  one  another.  The  petals  are 
each  deeply  2-cleft  (bifid),  so  as  to  appear  as  if  there  were 
1 0.  The  ovary  is  ovoid,  surmounted  by  3  sessile  stigmas, 
and  surrounded  by  the  stamens,  which  are  normally  10,  each 
standing  on  a  honey  gland.  But  these  little  flowers  assume 
large  liberty ;  often,  nay  generally,  their  stamens  are  reduced 


80  THE    PINK. 

to  5,  4,  or  even  3.*  Also  late  in  the  season  they  omit  their 
petals,  or  develop  some  mere  rudiments  only. 

The  Fruit  comes  to  be  a  capsule  with  1  cell  opening  by 
6  valves  (or  3  split  valves).  The  placenta  stands  in  the 
center  (free-central),  covered  with  seeds  which  have  a  black, 
sculptured  coat  (testa),  and  a  curved  embryo  around1  mealy 
albumen.  (See  Fig.  XVII,  4.) 

The  Scientific  Name  of  Chickweed  is  Stelldria  media, 
the  former  in  allusion  to  the  silvery  stars  (stella,  a  star)  of 
its  blossoms,  and  the  latter  to  its  abundance  (media,  com- 
mon). The  chickadee  and  the  chickens  are  fond  of  the 
plump  seeds  ;  hence  the  name  Chickweed.  The  genus  Stel- 
laria  is  distinguished  by  having  5  bifid  petals  and  3  stig- 
mas. 

XVIII.  THE   PINK. 

Description. — The  Garden  Pinks  and  Carnations,  so 
varied  in  form  and  coloring,  are  supposed  to  have  descended 
from  a  single  species  known  in  Europe  as  Clove  Pink,  a 
native  of  the  Southern  Alps.  In  all  its  diversities  it  retains 
and  is  known  by  its  glaucous  evergreen  foliage.  We  will 
take  the  common  single  Pink  as  the  type. 

Analysis, — The  LEAF  KEGIOK  is  complicated,  especially 
in  the,  older  plants.  A  caudex  (a  woody,  leafless,  close- 
jointed  stem)  with  its  root-end  dissolving  into  fibers,  divides 
above  into  many  prostrate,  tangled  branches,  which  become 
herbaceous  and  leafy  at  their  upturned  ends.  Here  the  true 
stems  (caulis)  begin,  with  lengthened  internodes  between 
the  tumid  nodes,  bearing  a  pair  of  opposite,  linear,  sessile, 

*  The  student  will  observe  that  the  stamens  come  to  maturity  and  shed  their  pol- 
len before  the  stigmas  are  ripe.  This  prevents  self-fertilization.  (See  p.  82.)  The 
amount  of  honey  secreted  in  these  flowers  must  be  infinitesimally  small.  By  an 
elaborate  calculation,  Wilson  concludes  that  it  would  require  2,500,000  florets  like 
those  of  the  White  Clover  to  yield  1  pound  of  honey  !  This  gives  some  idea  of  the 
industry  of  the  bee,  and  the  amount  of  labor  represented  in  every  honeycomb. 


STELLARIA. 


FIG.  XVIII.— Dianthus  Caryophyllus  :  2,  a  flower,  showing  all  the  organs ;  3,  the 
ovary  and  two  styles  ;  4,  a  petal  of  Silene  stellata,  jimbriate  (fringed)  and  unguiculate 
(petiolate) ;  5,  a  petal  of  Cerastium,  bifid. 

apparently  yeinless  leaves  at  each  joint,  and  a  terminal  (cen- 
trifugal) inflorescence. 

THE  FLOWER  KEGIOX. — The  flowers,  few  and  large,  on 
account  of  their  peculiar  grace  and  elegance,  have  been  cele- 
brated in  story  and  song  from  the  earliest  times.  The  green 
calyx,  of  5  united  sepals,  as  seen  by  their  disunited  ends,  is 
truly  a  flower-cup  or  v ase,  supported  at  the  base  by  2  or  3 
ovate  bractlets.  The  5  petals,  arranged  with  consummate  art, 
insert  their  long  claws  (petioles  ?)  within  the  vase,  forming 
a  fringed  and  tinted  corolla.  Likewise  the  10  long  stamens 
and  2  styles.  The  ovary  is  but  one,  becoming  a  1-celled, 
^-valved,  capsular  fruit.  The  many  black  seeds  with  embryo 
but  little  curved,  and  mealy  albumen,  cover  the  free-central 
placenta. 


82  THE 

FERTILIZATION. — The  nectar,  situated  in  the  deep  narrow 
calyx,  can  be  tasted  only  by  the  long  tongue  of  Moths  and 
Butterflies.  The  stamens  usually  appear  first,  issuing  from 
the  throat  of  the  blossom,  and  after  showering  their  pollen 
on  the  heads  of  the  visiting  Moths,  wither  away ;  immedi- 
ately, the  2  long  recurved  styles  emerge,  ready  to  receive  the 
pollen  brought  from  the  other  flowers.* 

TERATOLOGY. — Carnations  are  Pinks  made  double  by  arti- 
ficial culture.  A  careful  analysis  reveals  the  curious  change 
which  has  taken  place.  The  petals  are  multiplied  to  about 
20.  The  stamens  have  divided  themselves  each  into  several, 
all  more  or  less  deformed,  but  evidently  likewise  tending 
toward  the  shape  of  a  petal.  The  ovary  may  have  become 
triple,  with  a  third  style,  and  the  calyx  may  have  burst 
open.  This  unruly  behavior  is  called  teratology  (teras,  a 
monster).  See  Lesson  XXVIII. 

The  Name  is  Didnthus  CaryopJiyllus.  Dianthus  (Dios, 
anthos)  means  the  Flower  of  Jove,  or  God's  own  flower ;  and 
Caryophyllus,  the  Clove  Tree,  is  applied  to  this  species  on 
account  of  its  peculiar  fragrance.  The  genus  Dianthus  is 
known  by  a  tubular,  br  acted  calyx,  and  two  styles. 

Classification. — The  two  genera — Dianthus  and  Stella- 
ria,  represent  the  Order  of  the  Pinkworts,  or  CARYOPHYL- 
LACE^E.  The  student  will  remember  that  they  coincide  in 
the  following  characters  : 

Herbs  with  swollen  joints  and  opposite,  entire  leaves. 

Flowers  regular,  symmetrical,  4  or  5-parted. 

Petals  distinct,  or  wanting. 

Stamens  twice  as  many  as  the  sepals,  or  fewer. 

Ovary  compound,  free  from  the  calyx. 

Embryo  curved  or  coiled  on  mealy  albumen. 

*  Plants  with  this  habit  of  promotin?  cross-fertilization  will  be  found  quite  numer- 
ous, and  are  called  proterandrmts  (from  the  Gr.  protero*,  earlier,  andre*,  stamens). 
On  the  other  hand,  other  plants  mature  their  pistils  earlier  than  their  stamens.  The 
Plantain,  for  example,  pushes  out  its  long  hairy  style  a  day  or  so  before  its  own  sta- 
mens are  ready,  in  order  to  receive  pollen  from  other  flowers. 


GERANIUM.  83 

The  Pinkworts  thus  defined  will  include  35  genera  and  1000  spe- 
cies, growing  on  mountains,  rocks,  hedges,  and  waste  places,  in  the 
temperate  and  cold  regions  of  the  World.  Except  for  ornament  they 
seem  to  be  of  little  service  to  Man. 

Sweet  William  (Didnthus  barbdtus),  with  flowers  in  dense  cymes, 
and  infinite  variety  of  color,  is  from  Europe. 

Catchfly  (Silene)  is  noted  for  the  viscid  rings  just  below  the  joints, 
serving  not  only  to  catch  little  flies  and  gnats,  but  to  stop  the  ascent 
of  ants  who  would  steal  the  nectar  intended  for  the  bees. 

Corn  Cockle  (Lychnis  CKthdgo)  is  a  handsome  weed  growing  in 
Wheat  fields  because  its  seed  cannot  be  winnowed  from  the  grain. 

Soapwort  (Sapondria),  called  also  Bouncing  Bet,  flourishes  by  road- 
sides. It  has  large  handsome  flowers,  and  its  herbage  when  bruised 
may  be  used  for  soap. 

Scientific  Terms  in  Lessons  XVII  and  XVIII :  Bifid.  Caudex. 
Caulis.  Ditchotomous.  Free  central  placenta.  Internodes.  Nodes, 
Proterandrous.  Teratology. 


XIX.  THE  WILD  GERANIUM. 

Description. — In  May  and  June,  the  forests  are  every- 
where adorned  with  the  large,  round,  pale-purple  flowers  of 
the  Wild  Geranium  or  Cranesbill.  Beautiful  in  itself,  it  is 
invested  with  additional  interest  by  its  associations.*  It 
stands  firmly  erect,  1  or  2  ft.  high,  clothed  with  whitish  hairs. 

Analysis. — The  ffioot.  Under  the  soil  we  find  a  stout 
fleshy  root-stock  or  rhizome,  with  many  strong  fibers  at- 
tached, a  very  astringent  taste,  and  evidently  perennial.  It 
is  often  sought  by  the  country  people  as  a  household  medi- 
cine, and  sold  in  drug-stores,  by  the  name  of  Cranesbill. 

The  Stem  arises  in  Spring,  terete,  jointed,  and  with  a 
few  leaves  on  long  radical  petioles.  At  each  joint  (nodus) 


*  There  is  an  Eastern  tale  that  the  Geranium  was  formerly  a  Mallow,  but  Mahomet 
having  laid  a  garment  upon  it  to  dry,  it  was  transformed  into  this  more  beautiful  plant. 
A  marvelous  change  indeed ;  for  the  two  plants  are  botanically  unlike  by  many  grades 
of  difference. 


THE    WILD    GERANIUM. 


3  ? 

FIG.  XIX. — Geranium  maculatum  :  1,  plan  of  the  flower  ;  2,  the  stamens,  and 
(immature)  pistil ;  3,  the  mature  pistil ;  4,  section  of  ovary  ;  5,  ovule  ;  6,  fruit ;  7,  a 
seed  ;  8,  9,  embryo. 


GERANIUM.  85 

the  stem  bears  a  pair  of  opposite  leaves  and  divides  or  forks 
into  branches.  Botanists  call  the  joints  nodes,  and  the 
portion  of  stem  intervening  between  the  nodes,  internodes. 
In  Geranium  the  nodes  are  conspicuously  swollen.  In 
most  other  plants  they  are  slightly  swollen  and  bear  but 
one  leaf. 

The  .Leaves  are  palmi-veined,  and  palmately  5  or  7-lobed, 
the  lobes  cuneate  below  and  cleft  above.  Each  petiole  is 
furnished  with  a  pair  of  narrow,  acuminate  stipules  at  the 


The  JPlQwen,  regular  and  symmetrical,  are  an  inch 
broad  and  5-parted  throughout.  The  green  sepals  are 
3-veined,  and  awn-pointed ;  the  petals  obovate,  bearded  at 
the  base  on  the  short  claw  (unguis);  the  stamens  ten  (2), 
alternately  a  longer  and  a  shorter  one,  with  the  anthers  ver- 
satile, i.  e.,  balanced  on  the  tip  of  the  filament ;  the  pistils 
5  cohering  into  one  (3).*  The  torus  is  remarkable.  It 
bears  5  glands  alternating  with  the  petals,  and  supports  a 
central  column  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  styles  to  their  top. 
It  is  the  carpophore,  or  fruit-bearer  (6,  c). 

The  Fruit  (6)  is  a  regma  (fracture),  so  named  from  its 
curious  behavior.  The  entire  compound  pistil  persists, 
grows  into  a  slender  column  (b)  having  the  5  ovaries  at  the 
base.  When  fully  ripe,  it  breaks  up  into  its  5  constituent 
carpels,  and  each  carpel  is  then  borne  upward  on  its  recurv- 
ing elastic  style,  which  still  remains  attached  to  the  top  of 
the  carpophore.  In  this  position  it  is  inverted,  and  its  black 
dotted  seed  (7)  drops  out. 


*  It  has  often  been  observed  that  the  stamens  of  this  plant  mature  sooner  than 
their  pistil.  When  the  flower  first  opens,  the  style  is  short  and  the  5  stigmas  close  up 
as  seen  in  Cut  2.  After  the  anthers  have  shed  their  pollen,  then  the  stigmas  arise 
and  spread  out  ready,  but  too  late  to  receive  it.  Now  they  must  get  their  supply  from 
other  and  later  blossoms.  Such  flowers  are  called  proterandrous  (Note,  p.  82).  Cross- 
fertilization  is  evidently  the  end  of  this  arrangement. 


86  THE    HOKSESHOE    GEKANIUM. 

The  Seed  has  a  rough  shell  (testa)  entirely  filled  by  the 
embryo  whose  2  cotyledons  are  nicely  folded  together  and 
bent  over  on  the  radicle  (8,  9).  There  is  no  albumen.* 

THE  PLAK  of  the  flower  (1)  shows  6  circles,  each  with 
its  5  members  all  alternating  :  1st,  the  sepals ;  2d,  the  petals  ; 
3d,  the  honey  glands ;  4th  and  5th,  the  stamens ;  6th,  the 
ovaries. 

The  Name  Geranium  comes  from  the  Gr.  geranos,  a 
crane,  because  of  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  fruit  to  the 
beak  of  that  bird.  The  species  in  hand  is  G.  maculatum,  or 
Spotted  Cranesbill,  named  for  the  pale  blotches  often  seen  on 
its  leaves.  Another  common  species  is  G.  Robertidnum,  the 
Herb  Eobert,  with  smaller  and  redder  flowers,  f  These  and 
100  other  similar  species  have  perfectly  regular  flowers,  with 
ten  perfect  stamens,  and  the  fruit  a  regma. 


XX.  THE  HORSESHOE  GERANIUM. 

Description. —  Let  us  now  interrogate  that  popular 
house-plant,  the  Horseshoe  Geranium  (known  by  the  brown 
ring  on  its  rounded  leaves),  and  learn  whether  it  be  indeed 
a  Geranium,  or  of  some  other  genus  of  this  splendid  Order. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGION. —  The  plant  before  us 
was  reared  from  a  cutting  ;  hence  its  roots  are  artificial  and 
give  no  proof  of  their  native  form.  The  stem  lives  and 
grows  from  year  to  year,  becoming  a  woody  branching  shrub 
with  a  greenish  bark. 

It  is  said  that  in  seedlings  the  earlier  and  lower  leaves  are 


*  In  seeds  where  the  albumen  is  wanting,  the  seed-lobes  or  cotyledons  become 
thick  and  fleshy  with  starchy  matter,  infolding  the  embryo  for  its  protection  while 
sleeping,  feeding  it  with  their  own  substance  in  its  early  growth,  and  finally  appear- 
ing, as  usual,  a  pair  of  leaves,  the  ftrxt  which  the  plantlet  unfolds. 

t  The  pretty  flowers  are  roseate  and  penciled  with  purple.  The  leaves  are  more 
finely  divided  and  cut,  emitting  a  strong  odor  when  handled.  Late  in  the  season  they 
are  subject  to  a  parasitic  fungus,  appearing  sprinkled  with  darkish  specks. 


PELAKGONIUM. 


87 


opposite.  In  our  plant,  however,  all  are  alternate,  with 
long  petioles  and  broad  stipules.  The  blade  is  orbicular  or 
nearly  round,  palmi-veined,  with  many  shallow  lobes,  green, 
but  liable  to  endless  markings  and  shadings. 

THE  FLOWEK  REGION. — The  peduncles  issue  opposite  to 
the  leaves  and  grow  much  longer  than  they,  bearing  an  um- 
bel of  12  or  more  flowers,  with  an  involucre  of  6  bracts.  The 
flowers  are  an  inch  broad,  5-parted,  and 
slightly  irregular.  Of  the  5  green  sepals, 
the  upper  one  protracts  its  base  down  the 
pedicel,  forming  a  slender  tube  upon  it,  or 
a  slender  spur  adhering  to  it  (s).  Of  the  5 
scarlet  petals,  the  2  upper  are  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  3  lower.  Of  the  10  fila- 
ments, only  7  bear  efficient  anthers.  The 
pistil  and  fruit  are  nearly  as  in  the  Wild 
Geranium  save  the  twisted  beaks. 

The  Name. — Now,  with  its  irregular, 
spurred  flowers,  its  7  perfect  stamens,  can 
this  plant  be  a  true  Geranium  ?  The  French 
botanist,  L'fferitier,  A.  D.  1787,  separated  such  plants,  and 
formed  a  new  genus  with  the  analogous  name,  Pelargonium 
(Storksbill,  Gr.  pelargos).  It  now  includes  170  species,  all 
native  in  S.  Africa,  and  many  favorites  alike  in  the  conserva- 
tory and  in  the  humble  cottage  window.*  Ours  is  P.  zonale. 

The  Record  of  the  analysis  of  Wild  Geranium  is  to  be 
used  as  a  monitor,  not  a  guide.  The  form  of  the  tablet  is 
like  those  in  the  Plant  Record.  The  letters  following  the 

*  Another  group  of  Gerania  having  regular  flowers  with  only  5  good  stamem  and 
the  awns  of  the  carpels  twisted  and  barbed,  was  separated  from  the  Linnaean  genus  by 
L'Heritier  and  named  Erodium  (Heronsbill).  One  of  its  species,  E.  ticutarium, 
deserves  mention  as  a  forage  plant  of  great  value.  It  is  rare  in  the  Atlantic  States, 
but  in  California  overspreads  hill  and  plain  to  an  immense  extent.  It  is  called 
Al-filirea.  It  starts  from  seed  annually,  grows  rapidly,  feeds  flocks  and  herds  during 
Winter  and  Spring  on  its  sweet  herbage,  and,  in  the  dry  Summer  and  Autumn,  on  its 
nutritious  seeds  left  broadcast  on  the  ground. 


FIG.  XX.— Flower  of 
Pelargdnium  zonale. 


88 


THE    HOBSESHOE    GERANIUM. 


name  of  the  organ  are  the  initials  of  the  categories  heading 
the  page  ;  e.  g.,  "  Root,  L.  K."  stands  for  Root,  its  Life  and 
Kind;  "Leaves,  L.RC.F.S.Q."  is  for  Leaf  or  Leaves,  their 
Life,  Place,  Construction,  Form,  Size,  and  Qualities.  Pelar- 
gonium may  be  recorded  in  like  manner. 

Scientific    Terms.— Awn-pointed.     Carpophore.     Claw.    Cleft. 
Glands.    Internode.    Node.    Orbicular.     Regma. 


ORGAN,  (its) 

Life,  ZTabit,  dumber,  Place,  Dehiscence,  A'ind,  Construc- 
tion, .Form,  Placentation,  #ize,  Dualities,  vlppendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

V.  ,  Herb  erect,  l—2ft.,  with  whitish  hairs. 

Root,  L.K. 

il,  Hoot-stock  thick,  with  many  fibers. 

Stem,  L.H.K.P. 

0  ,  erect,  brachiate,  caulis-jointed,  terete. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

©,  opposite,  petiolate,  stipulate,  palmate,  5—1-lobed. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Terminal,  cymous,  centrifugal,  involucre  2-leaved. 

Flower,  N.C. 

5-parted,  perfect,  complete,  regular. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Bell-form,  green,  ciliate. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Persistent,  5,  imbricate,  bristle-tipped,  oblong. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Rosaceous,  lilac-purple. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  5,  contorted,  rounded,  claw  bearded. 

Stamens,  N.P.C.              10,  hypogy  nous,  filaments  slender. 

Anther,  D.C.F.                Longitudinal,  2-celled,  innate,  oblong. 

Style,  N.C.  F. 

5  united,  slender,  around  the  carpophore. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

5,  linear,  stellate. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

5  united  carpels,  separating  in  fruit. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

5,  breaking  up,  a  regma,  beaks  curved. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

1  in  each  carpel,  oval,  black. 

LOCALITY.—  Woods.    (Date),  May  3,  1877. 
CLASSIFICATION,-PHE]VOGAMIA,  POLYPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
—Order,  GEKANTACE^E. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Geranium  maculatum. 

—English,  Spotted  Cranesbill. 

OXALIS. 


89 


XXI.  THE  YELLOW  WOOD   SORREL. 

Description. — The  Yellow  Wood  Sorrel,  with  clover- 
like  leaves,  is  almost  ubiquitous.  It  blossoms  from  May  to 
September,  in  open  places,  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the 
Gulf,  and  even  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  other  plants 


FIG.  XXI.— Oxalis  stricta  :  1,  plan  of  the  flower;  2,  vertical  section  of  flower. 

of  its  kind  more  beautiful,  but  none  more  instructive  nor 
so  generally  within  the  reach  of  the  botanical  student. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGION.  From  perennial  creep- 
ers under  ground,  or  from  the  seed,  a  slender  stem  arises, 
simple  and  erect  at  first,  but  soon  branching  and  reclining. 


90 


YELLOW  WOOD    SOKREL. 


The  leaves  are  arranged  alternate  on  the  stem,  compound 
and  trifoliate,  consisting  of  a  long  petiole,  with  3  leaflets. 
The  form  of  these  leaflets  is  a  study.  They  are  broad  and 
notched  above  so  as  to  present  2  rounded  lobes  at  the  apex 
— the  cordate  form  inverted  (c),  or  obcordate.  The  venation 
is  also  to  be  studied,  whether  the  leaf  be  palmately  trifoliate) 
with  the  leaflets  all  sessile  alike  (as  if  cut  from  a  palmi- 
veined  leaf),  or  pinnately-trifoliate,  with  the  terminal  leaflet 


Oxalis  stricta  :  3,  the  united  stamens  ;  4, 5,  stamens  ;  6,  the  5  pistils  ;  7, 8,  sections 
of  the  fruit ;  9,  seed,  10,  testa,  11,  naked  ;  12,  embryo. 

stalked  as  in  Bulbous  Crowfoot  (p.  50)  or  better,  in  the  gar- 
den Bean.  This  question  let  the  reader  decide. 

Inflorescence. — Next  arises  the  inquiry,  Where  is  the 
axil  of  the  leaf  ?  It  is  analogous  to  the  arm-pit — the  inner 
angle  between  the  petiole  and  the  stem  (a).  From  this 
point  issues  the  bud  which  develops  into  a  branch,  and  in 
this  case,  at  least,  the  peduncle  which  bears  the  umbel  of 
flowers.  Hence  the  inflorescence  is  axillary  and  umbellate.* 

THE  FLOWER  EEGION". — The  flowers  of  Sorrel,  like  those 

*  Not  truly  umbellate,  however,  as  it  becomes  a  cyme  when  the  flowers  are  more 
than  3, 


OXALIS.  91 

of  Geranium,  are  5-parted  throughout ;  sepals  5,  petals  5, 
stamens  2x5,  and  pistils  5,  with  their  styles  distinct  and 
their  ovaries  united  (6).  The  stamens  are  also  united  at 
the  base,  or  monadelphous  (monos,  one,  adelphos,  brother- 
hood), (3). 

^EJstivaMon.  —  Here  recurs  an  interesting  topic  sug- 
gested by  the  curious  posture  of  the  petals  when  just  open- 
ing. How  are  they  folded  together  in  the  bud  ?  The  in- 
quiry is  important,  since  many  genera  and  even  some  orders 
are  characterized  by  their  mode  of  aestivation.  (See  the 
plan,  1.)  In  reference  to  the  "Wood  Sorrel  the  student 
would  instantly  reply,  "  The  petals  are  twisted  in  the  bud  !" 
And  the  terms  contorted  or  convolute  express  the  idea.  The 
petals  are  all  rolled  together  in  one  direction,  each  having 
one  edge  within  and  one  without.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
flowers  of  Cranebills,  and  generally  of  Storkbills. 

Sleep. — At  the  approach  of  night,  or  in  cloudy  weather, 
these  flowers  close  up  and  fold  their  contorted  petals  again 
as  in  the  bud.  So  also  do  the  leaves.  At  night  each  leaflet 
falls  back  on  the  stalk,  folds  its  two  halves  together  face  to 
face,  and  thus  remains  asleep,  as  it  were,  until  awakened  by 
the  morning  sun.* 


*  The  vigils  of  plants  are  evidently  dependent  on  the  degree  of  light ;  but  different 
species  are  variously  affected.  While  many,  like  Oxalis,  open  and  close  with  the  day 
for  many  days  in  succession,  others,  like  the  Morning  Glory  or  the  Portulacas,  open 
for  a  day  only,  and  perish.  The  evening  Primrose  opens  at  6  o'clock  P.  M.  for  a 
night,  perishing  at  sunrise  ;  and  the  Four-o-clock  at  about  that  hour  for  a  few  hours 
only,  and  the  Water  Lily  (Nymphsea)  opens  and  reopens  only  while  the  sun  is  high, 
from  8  to  2.  -And  there  are  other  plants  which,  like  the  Gerania,  open  once  for  all, 
and  close  not  by  night  or  day,  until  they  close  forever. 

Recent  researches  show  that  the  sleep  of  plants  generally  bears  some  relation  to 
their  peculiar  wants.  Thus  the  Daisy  closes  its  flowers  and  hangs  its  head  when 
night  comes  on,  or  the  gathering  clouds  forbode  a  storm,  lest  the  dew  or  rain  dissolve 
the  nectar  stored  up  in  its  florets.  The  Nipplewort  (Lapsana),  common  in  Europe, 
opens  before  six  and  closes  before  ten  in  the  morning,  in  order  that  the  bees  who  are 
early  risers  may  taste  its  nectar,  and  not  the  ants,  who  delay  until  the  dew  is  off,  and 
would  not  scatter  its  pollen.  Again,  night-flowers  are  adapted  to  the  habits  of  certain 
nocturnal  moths  which  are  needful  agents  in  their  fertilization.  Such  flowers  arc 
always  white  or  pale  yellow,  the  only  colors  visible  in  the  darkness. 


92  YELLOW   WOOD    SOKREL. 


The  JPruit  is  an  oblong  capsule  (7)  made  up  of  5  car- 
pels, each  with  a  row  of  seeds  in  its  cell  (8).  The  carpels 
open  on  the  back  (dorsal  dehiscence)  and  do  not  separate 
from  the  central  axis  (carpophore)  at  once  as  they  do  in  the 
regma  of  Geranium.  The  seed  is  anatropous  (9),  with  a 
loose,  separable  outer  coat  (10,  11)  and  a  large  straight  em- 
bryo buried  in  albumen  (12). 

THE  PLAN"  (1)  shows  the  sepals  to  be  quincuncial  (p.  43) 
and  the  petals  contorted  in  aestivation. 

The  Name  of  this  plant,  Oxalis  (oxus,  sour),  refers  to 
the  taste  of  the  herbage  given  to  it  by  the  presence  of  oxalic 
acid  in  the  form  of  a  salt  (binoxalate  of  potash).  The  spe- 
cific name,  0.  stricta,  alludes  to  its  upright  stem  ;  the  other 
species  being  mostly  acaulescent.  Oxalis  is  an  admirable 
genus,  embracing  in  all  lands  220  species,  many  of  which 
are  beautiful  conservatory  and  house  plants.* 

Classification. — The  student  can  hardly  fail  to  notice 
the  striking  resemblance  of  the  Oxalides  to  the  Gerania. 
Their  flowers  are  completely  analogous.  The  fruit  in  both 
consists  of  5  carpels — as  many  as  the  sepals,  attached  to  a 
central  axis  arising  from  the  torus.  Oxalis  takes  rank, 
therefore,  with  the  Gerania  in  the  Order  Geraniaceae. 

Scientific  Terms.— Alternate.  Axil.  Axillary.  Contorted.  Con- 
volute. Dorsal  dehiscence.  Leaflets.  Monadelphous.  Obcordate. 
Palmately  trifoliate.  Pinnately  trifoliate.  Trifoliate.  Umbellate. 


*  One  of  the  most  popular  is  O.  floribunda  (Lchmann)  from  Brazil.  A  specimen 
growing  in  our  study  has  bloomed  five  months  continuously,  displaying  some  300 
roseate  flowers  on  every  sunny  day.  It  is  very  exacting  iu  its  vigils,  closing  its  leaves 
at  sunset,  and  its  flowera  always  except  in  the  sunshine. 


TKOPJEOLUM.  93 


XXII.  THE  JEWEL  WEED. 

Description. — There  is  a  tall,  smooth  herb,  with  pel- 
lucid, jointed  stalks,  abundant  in  low  swamps  and  along 
shaded  rivulets,  variously  called  Jewel-weed,  Snap-weed, 
Touch-me-not,  &c.  Fresh  specimens,  together  with  the 
cuts,  will  show  how  much  a  flower  may  differ  from  its  kin- 
dred and  still  be  recognized. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGION.— The  annual  root ;  the 
juicy  stem,  with  its  tumid  nodes  ;  the  ovate,  serrate  leaves  ; 
and  the  axillary  inflorescence,  present  no  new  features.  The 
student  unaided  may  readily  characterize  them.  But  the 
flowers  and  fruit  are  remarkable. 

THE  FLOWER  REGION. — The  Flowers,  although  so  very 
irregularly  and  oddy  developed,  are  evidently  in  nature  and 
intention  5-parted.  Their  color  is  a  deep  orange  spotted  with 
reddish-brown.  Only  4  sepals  appear,  but  the  upper  one  (See, 
2,  s)  is  notched  at  the  broad  apex,  showing  it  to  be  double,  or 
composed  of  2  sepals  united.  The  lower  (y)  is  a  conical  hood 
(cucullate),  or  a  cornucopia,  tipped  with  an  inflected  spur. 
Only  2  petals  appear  (p  p),  but  each  has  a  lobe  and  is  evi- 
dently composed  of  2  united  petals.  There  are  5  short  sta- 
mens with  introrse  (p.  40)  anthers,  and  bearing  5  scales  cov- 
ering the  stigma,  which  is  sessile  on  the  ovary.  A  vertical 
section  (1)  gives  an  inside  view  of  the  flower. 

The  Fruit  is  a  general  wonder.  In  form  and  structure 
(3)  it  resembles  that  of  Oxalis  ;  in  behavior,  it  is  very  dif- 
ferent. At  maturity  its  5  muscular  carpels  or  valves  become 
elastic  springs  ready  to  break  loose  at  the  slightest  touch. 
Coiling  with  a  sudden  jerk  they  fly  from  the  central  axis  (4) 
and  scatter  the  seeds  in  every  direction.* 

*  This  is  one  of  the  many  devices  for  the  dispersion  of  seeds  in  which  intelligence 
and  wisdom  are  manifest.  The  seeds  of  Maple  and  KA\  are  furnished  with  wings  for 


94 


THE   JEWEL   WEED. 


*  6  7 

FIG.  XXII— Impatiens  fulva  :  1,  a  flower  dissected  ;  2,  a  flower  displayed  ;  3,  ripe 
fruit ;  4,  the  same  just  exploded ;  5,  a  seed ;  6,  section  ;  7,  8,  cotyledons  of  the 
embryo  exposed. 


TEOP^OLtJM.  95 

The  Seed  appears  in  (5)  to  be  anatropous ;  in  (6)  and 
(7),  dicotyledonous,  without  albumen,  the  large  straight 
embryo  filling  the  testa.  (8)  is  the  naked  embryo. 

The  Name. — In  this  connection,  let  the  Garden  Balsam 
be  analyzed.  Though  very  different  in  general  aspect,  we 
shall  find  that  the  above  description  of  the  Jewel-weed 
applies  to  it  in  almost  everything  but  color  and  clothing. 
Both  are  species  of  the  genus  Impdtiens  (impatient).  The 
Jewel-weed  is  /.  fulva  (Nuttall),  the  Balsamine,  /.  Balsamlna 
(Linn.).* 

Classification.  —  How  do  these  plants  resemble  the 
Gerania  ? — In  their  tumid  nodes,  5-parted  flowers,  5-carpelled 
fruit,  elastic  carpels,  central  axis,  and  in  the  spurred  lower 
sepal,  here  free  from  the  pedicel  while  in  Storkbills  adher- 
ing to  it.  These  are  marks  of  the  Order  Geraniacese. 

XXIII.  THE  NASTURTIAN,  OR  INDIAN  CRESS. 

Description.  —  This  old  and  popular  garden  flower 
assumes  a  style  of  beauty  intermediate  between  the  Gerania 
and  the  Jewel-weed.  It  is  a  native  of  Peru,  whence  it  was 
brought  nearly  200  years  ago.  Its  study  will  reveal  several 
new  forms  of  structure,  both  in  leaf  and  flower.  It  is  an 
annual  herb,  or  with  protection,  biennial;  but  the  root  per- 


this  purpose.  Tick-seeds  and  Burr-seeds  are  provided  with  hooks  and  barbs  by  which 
they  lay  hold  of  men  and  animals  and  are  thus,  by  unwilling  agents,  scattered  far  and 
wide.  The  seeds  of  Thistle,  Dandelion,  Silkgrass,  made  buoyant  by  means  of  their 
downy  appendages,  are  wafted  afar,  beyond  rivers,  lakes  and  seas.  The  Squirting 
Cucumber,  as  it  ripens,  becomes  distended  with  water  until  at  last  it  breaks  from  its 
stem  and  projects  through  the  rupture,  with  amazing  force,  the  mingled  seeds  and 
water.  Rivers  and  Ocean  currents  are  always  transporting  se^ds  from  country  to 
country.  Thus  the  Cocoa  and  the  Cashew  nut  and  the  seeds  of  Mahogany  have  been 
known  to  perform  lone:  voyages  without  injury  to  their  vitality.  Squirrels  laying  up 
their  winter  stores  in  the  earth,  birds  migrating  from  clime  to  clime  and  from  island 
to  island,  conspire  to  effect  the  same  important  end. 

*  Only  2  species  are  native  in  N.  America,  1  in  Europe,  1  in  Siberia,  1  in  Madagas- 
car, and  100  in  India.  All  are  remarkable  for  the  elastic  bursting  valves  of  their 
pods. 


96 


THE  NASTURTIAH,    OR  INDIAN    CRESS. 


ishes  with  the  stem.     It  is  cultivated  from  seed  both  for 
ornament  and  use. 


ORGAN. 

.Life,  flabit,  dumber,  Place,  Ztehiscence,  Tfind,  Construc- 
tion, ^ornijPlaceutation,  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

0  herb  terrestrial,  erect,  tall  (3—  5ft.),  smooth. 

Root,  L.K. 

Annual,  axial. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Herbaceous,  erect,  branching,  terete,  with  tumid  nodes. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Deciduous,  alternate,  pinni-veined,  petiolate,  simple,  ovate, 
serrate,  1—3'  long,  smooth. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Axillary,  racemed,  pedunculate,  bracted. 

Flower,  N.K.C.S. 

5-parted,  perfect,  irregular,  unsymmetrical,  1'  long. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Saccate  and  spurred,  colored  like  the  corolla.       [inflected. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  U,  imbr.,  upper  double,  lower  a  cornucopia,  spur 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Much  suppressed  and  deformed,  orange-color,  spotted. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Decid.,  2,  imbric.,  spreading,  double,  unequally  %-lobed. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

5,  hypogynous,  short,  each  bearing  a  scale. 

Anther,  P.D.C.F. 

Innate,  introrse,  dehisc.  lengthwise,  ovate. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

Very  short  or  none.                                              [filaments. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

5  united  into  1,  sessile,  5-lobed,  covered  by  the  5  scales  of  the 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Compound,  superior,  5-celled,  oblong. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

A  5-valved  capsule,  oblong,  opening  dastically. 

Seed,  N.C.F.4.A. 

Several,  exalbuminous,  with  straight  embryo. 

LOCALITY.-//*  wet  woods,  HoboTcen,  N.  J.    (Date),  May  27,  1877. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  PHENOGAMIA. 
ORDER.—  GERANIACE.E,  THE  CRAKEBTLLS. 
NAME.  —  Latin,  Impatiens  fulva. 

—  English,  Touch-me-not.    Jewel-weed. 

Analysis. —  The   Stem   is  slender  and  weak,  trailing 
along  the  ground,  or  climbing,  not  by  twining,  but  by  the 


TKOP^EOLUM,  97 

help  of  its  leaf -stalks.  Thus  it  may  arise  3  feet,  or  protected 
from  frosts  in  the  house,  6  feet. 

The  Zieares  have  the  form  of  a  shield  or  target  (pelta) 
called  peltate.  The  roundish  or  angular  blade  is  attached  to 
its  stalk  not  by  its  margin,  but  by  a  point  within.  It  is  a 
singular  form ;  but  if  you  compare  it  with  a  leaf  of  the 
Horseshoe  Geranium  (p.  87)  you  will  doubtless  conclude 
that  it  results  from  the  cohesion  of  the  2  base  lobes.  The 
same  thing  occurs  in  the  Ivy  Geranium.  The  long  petiole, 
when  its  help  is  needed  in  climbing,  coils  about  the  support- 
ing object  like  a  tendril,  as  in  that  plant  also. 

The  Flower.  All  parts  of  the  5-parted  irregular  flower 
are  alike  colored,  orange  or  variegated.  The  upper  sepal  is 
united  at  the  base  with  the  other  4  and  produced  backward 
into  a  spur.  The  petals  are  inserted  in  or  on  the  throat  of 
the  spur,  the  2  upper  sessile,  the  3  lower  fringed  (fimbriate) 
at  the  base  and  supported  on  a  claw  (ttnguis),  or  unguiculate. 
There  are  8  unequal  stamens,  and  3  ovaries  around  the  cen- 
tral axis  or  style.  (See  Fig.  XXIII,  Appendix.) 

The  Fruit.  The  ripe  fruit  contains  3  large,  fleshy, 
ribbed,  1-seeded  nuts,  such  as  we  often  see  upon  the  table 
as  a  substitute  for  Capers.* 

Classification. — This  plant  is  sometimes  called  Trophy- 
wort,  its  leaves  and  flowers  being  likened  to  shields  and 
helmets.  For  a  like  reason  the  generic  name  is  Tropceolum 
(tropceum,  a  trophy).  The  species  is  T.  major  ;  i.  e.,  the 
Greater  Trophywort.  Its  flowers  5-parted  and  spurred,  its 
stamens  unsymmetrical,  and  its  1-seeded,  separable  carpels, 
ally  it  fco  the  Storkbills  and  the  Order  Geraniaceae. 

The  Order  Geraniaceae,  as  now  constituted,  associates  20  genera 
and  nearly  1000  species.  But  the  association  is  not  truly  natural,  and 

*  The  true  capers  are  the  flower-buds  of  Capparis  spindsa,  a  shrub  of  S.  Europe, 
preserved  in  vinegar. 

5 


98  THE  SHEPHERD'S  PUKSE. 

the  genera  are  often  too  discordant  for  a  happy  family.  They  there- 
fore resolve  themselves  into  several  clans  or  suborders.  The  five 
genera  last  treated,  viz.,  Geranium,  Pelargonium,  Oxalis,  Impatiens, 
and  Tropaeolum,  represent  at  least  four  of  these  suborders,  which  for 
a  long  time  were  regarded  as  Orders.  (See  Botanist  and  Florist, 
p.  67,  flora.)  The  following  formula,  brief  and  easily  remembered, 
will,  with  few  exceptions,  characterize  all  the  Geraniaceae  : 

Herbs  or  shrubs. 

Flowers  perfect,  symmetrical. 

Stamens  as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  the  sepals,  often  some  of  them 
abortive. 

Carpels  and  cells  as  many  as  the  sepals,  separating  from  a  persist- 
ent axis  or  carpophore. 

Seeds  few,  with  no  albumen  (except  in  Oxalis). 

Scientific  Terms.— Fimbriate.  Peltate.   Suborder.  Unguiculate. 

XXIV.  THE  SHEPHERD'S  PURSE. 

Description. — This  is  a  homely  little  weed  intruding 
itself  into  gardens  and  fields  everywhere  unbidden,  yet  illus- 
trating the  principles  of  Botany  and  the  mysteries  of  vege- 
table life  quite  as  well  as  loftier  plants.  Beginning  to 
blossom  in  early  Spring,  it  continues  developing  flower  after 
flower  as  it  rises  higher  and  higher,  until  fruit  and  flower 
together  embellish  the  long  racemes. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGION. — The  student  will  now 
require  no  further  aid  in  recording  the  analysis  of  the  root 
and  stem ;  the  longevity,  venation  and  inflorescence ;  the 
presence  or  absence  of  stipules,  petioles,  bracts,  hairs,  and 
branches  ;  and  the  position  and  arrangement  of  the  leaves. 

The  Zteares  are  of  two  forms.  The  radical  are  oblong 
and  pinnatifid  or  feather-cleft ;  the  cauline  are  sagittate  or 
arrow-shaped  (sagitta,  an  arrow),  and  amplexicaul  (stem- 
clasping).  Here  observe,  whence  do  the  branches  arise  ? 
(p.  90).  What  is  the  position  of  the  racemes  ?  What  is  the 
procession  of  the  flowering  ? 


FIG.  XXIV.— Capsella  Bursa-pastdris  :  1,  the  flower  ;  2,  the  stamen?  and  pistil ;  3, 
the  pistil  alone  ;  4,  the  pistil  seen  edgewise  ;  5,  the  silicle  ;  6,  the  same  open,  showing 
the  seeds  ;  7,  a  seed ;  8,  9,  embryo,  with  cotyledons  incumbent. 


100  THE  SHEPHERD'S  PURSE. 

THE  FLOWER  REGION. — The  Flowers,  as  a  whole,  (1)  are 
4-parted,  regular,  and  unsymmetrical  (for  the  special  organs 
are  not  all  of  this  radical  number  4,  nor  multiples  of  it), 
viz.,  sepals  4,  petals  4,  stamens  6  (2),  pistils  2  (3,  4),  united 
and  stigma  double,  with  a  short,  thick  style.  Observe  the 
relative  length  of  the  stamens  (2)  ;  2  of  them  are  shorter 
than  the  other  4 — a  fact  denoted  by  the  term  tetradynamous. 
Also  the  special  form  of  such  corollas  or  flowers  is  cruciform 
(crux,  a  cross),  and  resembles,  when  the  petals  are  spread, 
the  Maltese  cross. 

The  fruit.  As  the  raceme  is  the  oldest  at  its  base, 
there  we  must  look  for  the  earliest  fruits.  Their  curious 
shape  reminds  one  of  a  leathern  pouch — the  shepherd's 
purse,  of  course.  Their  form  is  obcordate.  Their  slender 
pedicels  are  longer  than  when  in  flower.  A  thin  narrow 
partition  within  divides  them  crosswise  into  2  cells,  and  at 
length  they  break  into  as  many  boat-shaped  or  carinate 
valves,  liberating  the  seeds.  Such  a  fruit,  when  short  as  in 
this  case,  is  called  a  silicle  (a  little  pod) ;  when  long  as  in 
Mustard,  a  silique. 

The  Seed  in  its  testa  appears  as  in  (7),  with  its  embryo 
bent  double ;  also  in  the  cross-section  (8),  and  the  naked 
embryo  (9).  But  the  radicle  is  so  bent  as  to  lie  over  on  the 
lack  of  one  of  the  cotyledons,  not  on  its  edge.  So  this  seed 
is  said  to  be  with  radicle  incumbent.  It  has  no  albumen. 

The  Name,  Capsella  (a  little  box  or  capsule),  is  applied 
to  the  genus.  The  specific  term,  C.  Bursa-pastoris,  is  the 
same  meaning  in  Latin  as  in  English.* 

Scientific  Terms.— Amplexicaul.  Carinate.  Cruciform.  Pin- 
natifid.  Radical  number.  Sagittate.  Silicle.  Silique.  Tetradyna- 
mous. Unsymmetrical.  

*lndeed  the  name  as  well  as  the  plant  seems  to  be  truly  cosmopolite.  The  trav- 
eler who  sees  little  else  to  remind  him  of  his  native  soil,  can  generally  find  the 
homely  Shepherd's  Purse  growing  by  the  wayside.  It  is  abundant  even  amid  the 
classic  ruins  of  Rome,  and  there  too  the  peasant  calls  it  "Borsa  de  Pastor." 


CAEDAMINE. 


XXV.   THE  TOOTHROOT 


Description.  —  This  plant  frequents  the  rich  woodlands 
of  the  Northern  and  Western  States,  by  the  streams  and 
fountains,  blooming  in  the  spring  months.  It  is  glabrous 
(smooth),  1  foot  high,  and  often  called  Pepper-root. 

Analysis.  —  The  ffioot-stocfc,  by  its  peculiar  shape, 
suggests  the  former  name,  and  by  its  crisp,  pungent  taste, 
the  latter.  It  is  long,  creeping,  white  and  fleshy,  with  many 
knobby,  tooth-like  projections,  and  is  sometimes  broken  up 
into  a  string  of  knobby  tubers. 

The  Stem  with  its  two  opposite  trifoliate  leaves  and  its 
terminal  raceme,  presents  no  new  features. 

The  Flowers  are  constructed  on  the  plan  described 
under  Capsella,  but  are  large  and  showy.  When  the  4  ob- 
long white  petals  are  expanded,  their  mimicry  of  the  Mal- 
tese cross  justifies  the  term  cruciform  so  generally  applied 
to  this  class  of  flowers. 

The  Fruit  affords  a  new  field  of  study.  But  if  your 
specimens  are  not  well  matured,  search  for  riper  ones.  The 
form  is  outwardly  a  contrast  with  the  silicles  of  Capsella. 
The  pod  is  many  times  longer  than  wide,  lanceolate-linear, 
broadest  near  the  middle  and  tapering  below  to  the  pedicel 
and  above  to  the  style.  It  is  composed  of  2  carpels  and 
opens  by  2  valves.  Within,  it  is  divided  lengthwise  into  2 
cells.  Each  cell  nourishes  a  row  of  seeds  attached  alter- 
nately to  opposite  sides  of  the  valve  or  partition. 

Notwithstanding  the  difference  in  external  form,  this  fruit 
agrees  in  structure  with  the  silicle  of  Capsella,  and  its  name, 
silique,  is  of  similar  import  :  Silicle  being  a  short  pod  and 
silique  a  long  one. 

The  Seed,  skillfully  dissected,  as  seen  in  (4,  5),  shows  the 
embryo  bent  double,  so  that  the  radicle  rests  on  the  edge  of 


THE    TOOTHROOT    CRESS. 


PIG.  XXV.— Cardamine  diphylla  :  1,  the  stamens,  and  1  style  ;  2,  a  eilique 
in  the  silique  ;  4,  seed  cut  across ;  5,  the  embryo— cotyledons  accumbent. 


CABDAMINE.  103 

the  two  cotyledons.  The  phrase  cotyledons  decumbent  is 
applied  to  seeds  so  constructed.  Compare  this  with  the  seed 
of  Oapsella. 

The  Name  of  this  plant  is  Cardamlne  diphylla,  or  the 
Two-leaved  Toothroot.  There  are  other  species  having  3 
whorled  leaves,  and  still  others  with  alternate  leaves.* 

Classification. — Here  let  the  student  take  note  of  the 
affinities  of  these  two  genera,  Capsella  and  Cardamine,  in 
the  following  points.  Thus  will  he  learn  the  characters  of  a 
large  and  important  Order,  the  CRUCIFERS,  or  Crucifers.  f 

Herbs,  without  stipules. 

Inflorescence  centripetal,  bractless  racemes. 

Flowers  cruciform,  perfect. 

Stamens  didynamous,  hypogynous. 

Ovary  double. 

Fruit  siliques,  long  or  short. 

Seeds  exalbuminous,  with  the  embryo  bent  double. 

The  Order  of  Crucifers  is  truly  natural,  and  embraces  about 
200  genera  and  1600  species,  chiefly  in  the  Temperate  Zone.  More 
than  100  species  are  peculiar  to  this  Continent.  Among  them  are 
nutritious  vegetables,  as  Cabbage,  Turnip,  Radish.  Some  are  condi- 
ments in  general  use ;  as  Horse-radish,  Mustard.  The  bland  Rape- 
seed  oil  is  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  the  Rape  (Brdssica  Napus). 
Woad,  a  blue  dye,  is  obtained  from  the  root  of  Isdtis  tinctoria.\  In 
medicine  the  Crucifers  are  stimulant  and  antiscorbutic,  but  none  are 
poisonous.  They  all  contain  a  volatile  acrid  principle  abounding  in 
sulphur  and  nitrogen,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  unpleasant  odor  they 
emit  in  decaying.  Here  too  belongs  many  a  favorite  garden  flower, 
like  Sweet  Alyssum,  Candytuft,  Wall-flower  (Cheiranthus),  Honesty 
(Lunwria),  and  Stock  (Matthlola). 

*  The  Toothroots  were  first  named  by  Linnaeus,  Dentdria  (dens,  a  tooth).  The 
original  species  were  easily  distinguished  from  the  genus  Cardamine.  But  other 
species  recently  found  in  California  combine  the  characters  of  both  genera,  so  as  to 
unite  them  into  one,  taking  the  older  name.  Some  authors,  however,  still  retain  the 
genus  Dentaria,  and  call  our  plant  D.  diphylla.  This  is  therefore  its  synonym. 

t  In  this  connection,  let  the  Mustard  plant,  Wall-flower,  Pepper-grass,  Candytuft, 
&c.,  be  analyzed  and  registered. 

t  This  dye  is  famous  in  history  as  having  been  employed  by  the  Britons  in  stain- 
ing their  bodies  in  order  to  frighten  their  enemies. 


104  THE    STRAWBERRY. 

Scientific  ^Terms. — Cotyledons  accumbent.  Cotyledons  incum- 
bent. Glabrous.  Silicle.  Silique.  Synonym. 

XXVI.   THE  STRAWBERRY. 

Description. — May,  charming  May  is  the  festival  of  the 
Eose worts.  Now  trees  and  shrubs,  as  well  as  tender  herbs, 
are  bursting  into  bloom,  adorning  field  and  forest.  So 
many  and  varied  are  the  flowers  asking  attention,  that  one 
is  bewildered  in  choosing.  Among  the  Eoseworts  let  us  first 
examine  the  Strawberry  plant. 

Analysis. — The  .^00/and  Stem  are,  as  in  Liverleaf  and 
Blue  Violet,  subterranean.  But  the  stem  (crown,  p.  53)  at 
certain  times  sends  out  from  its  top  a  slender,  terete,  red 
runner,  one  or  more,  a  foot  in  length,  tipped  with  a  bud, 
which  on  touching  the  soil,  develops  roots  downward  and 
leaves  upward,  and  so  founds  a  new  plant. 

The  Z/eaves  are  complete  in  their  organization,  having 
blade,  petiole,  and  stipules — the  blade  palmately  trifoliate 
as  in  Oxalis  (p.  90).  The  leaflets  are  ovate,  oval  or  obo- 
vate,  coarsely  serrate,  having  teeth  pointing  forward  like 
sawteeth,  and,  like  the  scapes,  pubescent,  with  soft  appressed 
hairs.  The  petioles  are  villous,  with  coarser  spreading  hairs.* 

The  Scape  branches  irregularly  into  a  cluster,  of  which 
the  central  flower  is  the  oldest ;  hence  the  inflorescence  is 
centrifugal,  progressing  from  the  center  outward,  and  the 
cluster,  a  cyme. 

*  The  hairs  of  plants  constitute  an  interesting  study.  They  are  composed  of  a 
single  long  cell,  or  of  a  transparent  tissue  of  cells  placed  end  to  end  like  a  string  of 
beads.  There  is  an  endless  variety  in  their  length,  abundance,  and  quality.  Some- 
times they  are  soft  and  close  like  down,  sometimes  stiff  and  rough  like  bristles.  Now 
they  form  a  fringe  like  an  eyelash,  and  now  they  silver  the  surface  with  a  silky  gloss. 
Here  they  curve  backward  into  a  hook,  oftentimes  barbed.  In  the  Nettle,  they  are 
hollow  stings  with  a  bag  of  poison  concealed.  In  the  Sun-dew,  they  are  tipped  with 
a  glistening  exudation  like  a  dew-drop.  They  warmly  clothe  the  early  catkins  of  the 
Willow,  and  decorate  the  landscape  in  the  waving  plumes  of  the  Pampas  Grass.  Cot- 
ton, a  great  staple  of  commerce,  is  but  the  hair  with  which  a  seed  is  fledged. 


FBAGAKIA. 


105 


PIG.  XXVI.— Fragaria  vesca  :  1 ,  a  leaf  with  its  stipules  ;  2,  a  cyme  ;  3,  fruit ;  4,  ver- 
tical section  of  a  flower  ;  5,  a  stamen,  innate  ;  6,  a  pistil  with  lateral  style  ;  7,  vertical 
section  of  a  strawberry. 


106  THE    STKAWBEBRY. 

The  flower,  in  its  general  plan,  resembles  the  Butter- 
cup ;  but  have  you  not  already  taken  note  of  two  remarkable 
differences?  The  5  green  sepals  are  here  reinforced  by  5 
similar  alternating  bracts,  appearing  like  a  double  calyx  or 
a  calyx  of  10  sepals.  The  oo  (=  many)  stamens,  a  multiple 
of  5  (at  least  in  the  wild  plant),  are,  in  situation,  perigynous 
(peri,  around,  gyne,  pistil),  i.  e.,  adhering  at  the  base  to  the 
calyx  as  if  inserted  on  it  (4).  How  does  this  compare  with 
the  flower  of  Buttercup  ?  It  is  an  important  distinction. 
The  GO  pistils,  situated  as  in  Buttercup,  are  peculiar  in  form 
(6),  with  a  lateral  style,  and  quite  distinct  from  one  another. 

The  fruit  is  a  strawberry  ;  it  needs  no  other  name,  for 
there  is  no  other  like  it.  It  consists  of  the  enlarged  pulpy 
torus  (7)  bearing  on  its  surface  the  many  one-seeded  carpels 
— the  achenia>  the  true  fruit  of  the  botanist.  *  While  in 
bloom,  the  flowers  are  erect  and  above  the  leaves,  but  in 
fruit  they  nod  and  ripen  in  partial  concealment. 

•^Jslivation .  The  5  white  petals,  like  those  of  the 
Buttercup,  are  quincuncial,  i.  e.,  2  are  wholly  outside,  2  are 
wholly  within,  and  1  oblique,  or  half  without  and  half 
within.  Compare  this  with  the  flower  of  Oxalis.  f 

The  Name,  Fragaria,  alludes  to  the  fragrance  of  the 
luxurious  fruit.  Two .  species,  F.  Virginiana,  and  F.  vesca, 
grow  wild  in  woods  and  fields.  Under  cultivation,  the 
pulpy  torus  is  wonderfully  enlarged. 

Scientific  Terms.— Complete  leaves.  Cyme.  Imbricate.  Pe- 
rigynous. Pubescent.  Quincuncial.  Runners.  Serrate.  Villous. 

*  In  the  vegetable  economy  the  pulpy  deposit  in  fruits  has  reference  to  the  disper- 
sion of  the  seeds  rather  than  their  nourishment  in  germination.  It  feeds  and  nour- 
ishes the  birds,  which  in  turn  plant  afar  off  the  seeds  which  they  have  swallowed, 
while  man  avails  himself  of  only  its  superabundance.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
varieties  of  form  and  place  which  this  deposit  takes  in  different  fruits.  In  the  straw- 
berry, the  delicious  morsel  is  in  the  torus  ;  in  the  raspberry  it  is  in  the  achenia  ;  in 
the  blackberry,  in  both  torus  and  achenia.  In  the  checkerberry,  the  calyx  contains 
the  rich  deposit ;  in  the  grape,  the  pericarp,  and  in  the  apple,  both  calyx  and  peri- 
carp, while  in  the  pineapple  the  whole  inflorescence  becomes  gorged  with  pulp. 

t  The  term  imbricate  is  more  general,  applying  to  both  these  special  forms  in 
which  the  petals  overlap  each  other  like  shingles.  (See  p.  43,  Note.) 


PYEUS.  107 

XXVII.  THE  APPLE  TREE. 

.  The  Tree. — The  transition  from  the  humble  herb  to  the 
lofty  tree  is  sufficiently  abrupt ;  but  except  in  growth  and 
stature,  the  real  difference  may  be  slight.  While  the  herb 
devotes  its  entire  annual  income  to  its  offspring,  the  tree 
reserves  a  portion  for  itself,  treasuring  up  solid  wood  in  its 
stem  and  branches. 

The  Trunk  is  the  appropriate  name  for  the  stem  of  a 
tree — one  of  the  most  interesting  and  useful  of  all  natural 
objects.  In  the  Apple  Tree,  it  is  short  and  definite,  seldom 
more  than  7  or  8  feet  high.  At  the  base  in  the  ground,  and 
at  its  summit,  it  suddenly  terminates,  dissolving  into  roots 
strong  and  far-reaching  below,*  and  into  branches,  branchlets 
and  spray  above,  forming  the  rounded,  aerial  head.  This 
kind  of  trunk  is  termed  solvent,  in  distinction  from  the 
excurrent  trunk,  as  shown  in  the  Pines  (p.  216). 

The  Wood,  seen  in  cross-sections  easily  made  with  a  saw 
and  plane  (8),  displays,  1st,  the  pith  in  or  near  the  center ; 
2d,  the  purple  heart-wood  \  around  it ;  3d,  the  white  sap-wood 
around  the  heart- wood  ;  4th,  the  ~bark  around  all ;  5th,  the 
annual  layers  or  wood-rings,  here  two  only,  of  which  the 
outer  is  the  younger ;  and  6th,  the  silvery  medullary  rays 
running  from  the  pith  (medulla)  to  the  bark.  Each  layer  is 
the  growth  of  a  year  ;  consequently  the  number  of  the  lay- 
ers suggests  the  age  of  the  branch,  and  a  similar  section  of 

*  If  all  the  roots  of  growing  plants  could  be  laid  bare  of  earth,  the  sight  would  be 
marvelous.  It  is  roughly  estimated  that  an  Elm  is  as  large  below  as  above  ground. 
What  shall  we  say  of  the  root  of  the  common  Red  Clover,  which  has  been  known  to 
descend  a  distance  of  five  feet ;  or  a  stalk  of  Wheat  which,  within  forty-seven  days 
after  planting,  sent  down  its  fibers  into  a  light  subsoil  seven  feet  ?  The  roots,  blindly 
searching  around  after  food,  often  seem  to  be  endowed  with  some  special  sense. 

t  More  properly  called  duramen  (dunis,  hard).  It  is  heart- wood  only  in  respect  to 
situation,  for  it  bears  no  part  in  the  life  and  vegetation  of  the  plant.  It  is  more  the 
seat  of  death  than  of  life  ;  hence  it  often  decays,  leaving  the  trunk  hollow  while  the 
tree  is  as  flourishing  as  ever.  Thus  the  tree  at  once  both  lives  and  dies,  like  the  Coral, 
which  is  dead  below  and  alive  at  the  extremities. 


108 


THE    APPLE    TREE. 


the  trunk  indicates  the  age  of  the  tree.  They  also  show  that 
the  wood  grows  externally,  for  the  new  layer  is  deposited 
outside  the  old  wood  next  to  the  bark.  In  other  words,  the 
mode  of  its  growth  is  exogenous  (exo,  outside,  genao,  I  grow). 
Compare  the  growth  of  the  Palm  (p.  225). 


FIG.  XX VH.— Flowering  branch  of  Pyrus  Mains  :  1,  section  of  a  flower  ;  2,  sec- 
tion of  the  ovary  ;  3,  section  of  the  fruit  (apple) ;  4,  a  seed  ;  5,  6,  sections  of  same ; 
7,  the  embryo. 


PYRTJS. 


109 


THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS. — Whence  and  what  are  the  ma- 
terials for  sustaining  this  growth  ?  Learn  from  the  treat- 
ment which  your  house  plants  receive.  Their  roots  are  im- 
mersed in  a  pot  of  soil.  You  shower  them  at  night  with 
water  containing  a  little  added  ammonia.  You  open  the 


8,  cross-section  of  an  exogenous  stem  of  2  years'  growth:  1,  pith  ;  2, 3,  annual  lay- 
ers of  wood  ;  4,  the  bark  and  white  new  layer  (cambium)  under  it.  9,  an  endogenous 
stem  (Indian  Corn),  with  no  layers  nor  bark. 

windows  in  the  morning  to  bathe  them  in  fresh  air.  Then, 
with  warmth  and  sunshine,  they  ask  no  more.  So  the  tree, 
by  its  myriad  o£  roots  and  rootlets,  imbibes  water  containing 
ammonia  and  various  mineral  matters  in  solution.  Thence 
this  sap,  as  we  call  it,  creeping  from  cell  to  cell  of  the  root, 
stem  and  branch,  and  dissolving  the  sugar,  gum,  &c.,  it  finds 
on  the  way,  finally  reaches  the  leaves.  Here  is  the  chemical 
laboratory  of  the  plant.*  Much  of  the  water  having  per- 
formed its  work  of  carrying  up  the  raw  material  from  the 
earth,  evaporates  through  the  pores  of  the  leaf.f  Through 

*  It  is  curious  to  notice  how  the  trunk  and  branches  of  the  tree  are  all  the  work  of 
the  frail  and  transient  leaf.  Slowly,  year  after  year,  generation  after  generation,  it  is 
steadily  elaborating,  from  air  and  rain  and  sunshine,  these  solid  structures  which  are 
to  remain  its  enduring  monument,  when  it  has  faded  and  crumbled  to  dust. 

t  It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  the  leaves  of  plants  exhale  moisture  to  an 
enormous  amount.  An  acre  of  beets,  during  a  single  day  of  sunshine,  evaporates 
from  17  to  19  thousand  pounds  of  water.  A  Chestnut  tree  35  years  old,  in  24  hours, 
lost  over  63  quarts  of  water.  The  upward  pressure  of  the  ascending  sap  is  very  great. 
Experiments  were  made,  in  1720,  by  Dr.  Rales  of  England,  proving  that  this  force  in 
a  Grapevine  was  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  column  of  water  43  feet  high.  Similar 
experiments  were  made  in  1873,  by  President  Clark,  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
College,  on  a  native  vine  (Vitis  sestivalis).  On  May  day,  a  mercurial  gauge  was 


110  THE    APPLE    TEEE. 

these  same  pores  the  leaf  inhales  the  air,  and  now  under 
the  influence  of  the  sun  (see  Chemistry,  pp.  97,  181,  237) 
the  sap  is  converted  into  a  thin  mucilage  which  contains  all 
the  elements  of  vegetable  growth.  The  sap  then  descends  * 
and  spreads  through  the  tree,  especially  along  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  bark,  supplying  every  want  of  the  young  layer  of 
wood,  of  the  leaf  and  the  flower. 

Analysis. — The  Scares  of  the  Apple  Tree  are  com- 
plete, having  a  pair  of  subulate  (awl-shaped)  stipules  at  the 
base  of  the  short  petiole.  The  blade  is  ovate,  serrate,  and 
beneath  tomentous  with  a  dense  covering  of  matted  hairs. 
Its  venation  is  pinni- veined  and  reticulated. 

The  Inflorescence  is  an  umbel  issuing  from  one  bud, 
with  no  peduncle  and  therefore  sessile. 

The  Flowers  are  pedicellate,  regular,  5-parted,  polyan- 
drous,  perigynous,  rose- white,  fragrant ;  the  5  sepals  are  so 
united  below  as  to  form  an  urn-shaped  fleshy  tube  which 
adheres  to  and  encloses  the  5-carpelled  ovary  (1,  2) ;  f  the  5 
petals  are  broadly  oval,  quincuncial  (p.  43),  inserted  by  their 
short  claws  with  the  oo  perigynous  stamens  (p.  106).  The  5 
styles  are  partly  united. 

The  fruit  is  a  pome  (3).  Mark  how  it  is  crowned  with 
the  persistent  calyx  lobes  (sepals),  a  proof  that  the  pome 
consists  of  the  enlarged  calyx-tube  with  the  enclosed  ovary, 
both  gorged  with  pulp.  Make  a  cross-section  (2,  3)  and  see 
the-  5  cells  with  cartilaginous  walls,  and  the  circular  greenish 
line  around  them  in  the  pulp  marking  the  boundary  between 

attached  to  the  severed  end  of  one  of  its  main  roots.  At  first  there  was  a  suction 
downward,  gradually  diminishing  until  the  10th.  Thence  until  the  29th,  an  upward 
pressure  increased  and  attained  a  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  88  feet  of  water  1 

*  We  can  easily  prove  the  existence  of  this  descending  current,  for  on  making  an 
incision  into  the  hark  of  a  young  branch,  the  sap  will  ooze  from  the  upper  and  not  the 
lower  lip  of  the  cut. 

t  Thus  the  ovary  is  apparently  situated  below  the  calyx,  whence  it  is  said  incor- 
rectly to  be  inferior,  and  the  calyx  superior.  The  phrase  ovary  adherent,  or  calyx 
adherent  are  of  the  same  meaning  and  more  correct.  In  all  the  flowers  heretofore 
analyzed  the  calyx  is  free  (inferior)  and  the  ovary  free  (superior). 


PYRTJS. 


Ill 


the  ovary  and  the  calyx  tube.  In  each  of  the  5  cells  are  2 
seeds,  each  large  enough  for  an  easy  analysis  (4).  The 
brown  testa  outside  is  readily  separated  from  the  soft, 
white  inner  coat  (tegmeri).  The  cut  (7)  shows  the  naked 
embryo,  with  its  radicle  and  two  cotyledons  ;  (5)  and  (6)  are 
sections. 


10 


11 


10,  germination  of  the  Beech-nut  :  10,  cross-section  showing  the  2  folded  cotyle- 
dons ;  11,  the  radicle  only  protruded  ;  12,  the  ascending  axis  above  c  appears  ;  13, 
the  cotyledons  expand  into  a  pair  of  leaves—  the  first  two,  and  show  the  plumule  ;  14, 
with  rootlets  and  the  first  leaves  from  the  plumule. 


Plant  these  seeds,  or  find  in  the  garden 
seeds  already  sprouted  {germinating},  and  learn  what  the 
several  parts  become  in  the  plant.  Here  is  seen  the  radi- 
cle, r,  growing  downward  as  the  root,  the  plumule,  p,  grow- 
ing upward  as  the  stem,  and  the  2  cotyledons  appearing  and 
acting  as  the  first  leaves.  The  store  of  food  laid  up  in  them 
is  serving  (like  the  albumen  where  there  is  any)  for  the  nour- 


THE    ROSE. 

ishment  of  the  plantlet  until  with  roots  and  leaves  of  its  own 
it  becomes  able  to  provide  for  itself.* 

The  Name,  Pyrus,  the  Latin  word  for  Pear,  was  adopted 
by  Linnasus  as  the  title  of  a  genus  including  the  Pear,  Apple, 
and  other  trees.  The  specific  name,  Mains,  is  the  ancient 
Roman  term  for  Apple. 

Scientific  Terms. — Adherent  calyx.  Adherent  ovary.  Annual 
layers.  Bark.  Cambium.  Exogenous.  Excurrent  trunk.  Free  calyx. 
Free  ovary.  Germination.  Heart- wood.  Inferior  calyx.  Inferior  ovary. 
Medullary  rays.  Pith.  Plumule.  Sap-wood.  Solvent  trunk.  Superior 
calyx.  Superior  ovary.  Tegmen.  Testa. 


XXVIII.  THE  ROSE. 

Description. — Among  flowers  the  Rose  reigns  supreme. 
Without  it  no  garden,  however  humble,  is  thought  complete. 
For  its  dignity,  fragrance,  and  infinitude  of  form  and  color, 
it  is  interwoven  with  all  poetry  and  art.  f  The  species  grow- 
ing wild  in  the  whole  world  may  be  120,  while  the  garden 
varieties  are  numbered  by  thousands.  Double  Roses  are  the 
delight  of  the  florist,  and  very  instructive  ;  but  they  are  unfit 
for  regular  analysis.  You  must  bring  the  Wild  Rose  of  the 
swamp  or  prairie,  or  the  Sweet  Brier  of  the  field. 


*  Here  the  analysis  of  the  Pear,  Peach,  and  Cherry  flowers  will  be  in  order,  also 
the  Yellow  Cinquefoil  (Potentilla).  Compare  the  flowers  by  making  vertical  sections, 
and  you  will  find  striking  analogies  as  well  as  contrasts.  In  Kaspberry,  the  torus 
and  its  ovaries  are  elevated  above  the  calyx  ;  in  Cinquefoil,  they  are  on  a  level  ;  in 
Rosa  (1),  depressed  far  below  it. 

t  The  Rose  was  a  great  favorite  with  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Nero  caused  show- 
ers of  Roses  to  be  sprinkled  on  his  guests  at  banquets,  and  Heliogabalus  carried  this 
to  such  an  extent  that  several  persons  were  suffocated  before  they  could  extricate 
themselves  from  the  mass.  The  Sybarites,  it  is  said,  slept  on  couches  stuffed  with 
Rose  petals.  This  flower  was  dedicated  to  the  god  of  silence,  and  a  Rose  hanging 
over  a  guest-table  was  a  hint  that  conversation  was  to  be  "sub-rosa."  It  was  cus- 
tomary for  wreaths  of  Roses  to  be  worn  by  warriors,  while  Rose-leaves  (petals)  were 
strewn  on  the  dishes  on  festal  occasions,  and  the  bushes  were  planted  on  graves  as  a 
mark  of  respect  and  love.  In  later  times  the  Rose  was  especially  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin,  and  in  Dante's  Paradise  she  is  termed  the  "  Mystic  Rose." 


7  a 

FIG.  XXVIII.— Rosa  Carolina  :  1,  vertical  section  of  flower  (minus  the  petals) ;  2,  a 
stamen  ;  3,  a  pistil ;  4,  showing  the  1  ovule  ;  5,  the  hip  (fruit)  j  6,  section  ;  7,  an  ache- 
nium  ;  8,  showing  the  suspended  seed, 

113 


114  THE    BOSE. 

Analysis. — We  have  in  hand  a  shrub,  with  woody  stems, 

4  to   6  feet  high — your  own  stature  more  or  less.    It  is 
beset  with  prickles.     Mark  their  structure  ;  compare  them 
with  the  thorns  of  the  thorn-apple,  and  note  how  they 
differ. 

The  I/eaves  are  odd-pinnate,  consisting  of  5  to  9  (an  odd 
number)  elliptical,  serrate  leaflets,  with  pinnate  and  reticu- 
late veins.  The  2  narrow  stipules  are  adnate  to  the  petiole. 

The  Inflorescence  is  in  the  form  of  a  corymb — the 
peduncle  branching  into  unequal  pedicels  bearing  the  flow- 
ers at  about  the  same  level. 

The  Flower  may  be  cut  vertically  (1)  for  a  better  view 
of  the  structure.  The  calyx  tube  is  seen  inclosing,  but  not 
adhering  to  the  15 — 20  distinct,  inferior  (?)  ovaries.  The 

5  sepals  are  some  or  all  of  them  tipped  with  a  leaflet.    The  5 
quincuncial,  broad-obcordate,  rose-colored  petals  are  inserted 
with  the  oo  perigynous  stamens  on  the  calyx  tube. 

The  Fruit,  generally  called  a  hip  (5,  6),  is  globular, 
fleshy,  red,  inclosing  (not  adhering  to)  the  15  or  more  dis- 
tinct bony  achenia.  The  styles  are  persistent  (3,  4).  The 
seed  is  anatropous,  suspended  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
cell  (7,  8). 

THE  DOUBLE  ROSE.— In  wild  native  plants  double  flower- 
ing is  extremely  rare.  Have  you  ever  known  an  instance  ? 
This  phenomenon  seems  to  be  an  unnatural  condition 
induced  and  perpetuated  by  the  art  of  the  cultivator.  Its 
study  reveals  many  secrets  of  nature's  laws.  In  any  col- 
lection of  Eoses  we  find  some  single  and  natural,  some  semi- 
double,  and  some  fully  double.  The  1st  exhibits  a  corolla  of 
5  broad,  equal  petals,  and  a  great  number  of  stamens  within 
its  enclosure.  The  2d  displays  a  5-petaled  corolla  with  20  or 
more  narrow  petals  superadded,  and  in  their  midst  a  dimin- 
ished number  of  stamens.  The  3d  shows  a  hundred  petals 


ROSA.  115 

filling  the  entire  space  within  the  original  corolla.  What 
has  become  of  the  stamens  ?  Look  again  at  the  semidouble 
Rose.  You  find  the  stamens  in  a  state  of  transition,  as  it 
were  ;  some  perfect,  yellow  ;  some  with  a  slight  red  expan- 
sion on  one  side,  others  on  both  sides  ;  some  again  half  sta- 
men and  half  petal,  and  in  all  degrees  of  progress — plainly 
indicating  whither  the  stamens  are  going  and  have  gone. 
From  this  study,  the  nature  of  the  double  Rose,  and  the 
tendency  of  the  stamens  become  manifest.  In  the  semi- 
double,  a  part  of  the  stamens  have  been  transformed  to 
petals,  and  in  the  double,  all  of  them. 

The  metamorphosis  often  goes  still  further.  In  that  curi- 
ous variety,  the  Green  Rose,  the  stamens  have  all  reverted 
first  to  petals,  and  then  to  leaves.  In  the  Damask  Rose,  we 
have  occasionally  seen  a  leafy  branch  occupying  the  place  of 
the  stamens  and  pistils.  Similar  changes  are  continually 
occurring  not  only  in  Rose,  but  in  Pasony,  Camellia,  Bal- 
samine,  Violet,  and  other  plants,  and  all  agree  in  teaching 
that  the  stamen  is  a  leaf  modified  and  adapted  to  a  special 
purpose.  The  student  will  look  for  further  illustration  of 
this  interesting  doctrine,  which  was  first  suggested  by  Lin- 
naeus about  A.  D.  1750. 

The  Name  Rosa  is  of  Latin  origin.  The  wild  species 
just  described  and  portrayed  is  R.  Carolina. 

Classification. — The  Strawberry,  Apple  Tree,  and  Rose, 
as  we  now  see,  are  allied  to  one  another  and  to  the  Order  of 
the  ROSACES,  or  Roseworts,  by  the  following  characters  : 

Stipules  present.  Stamens  GO  perigynous. 

Flowers  regular.  Seed  anatropous. 

Corolla  quincuncial.  Embryo  straight. 

Albumen  none. 

The  Roseworts,  moreover,  having  the  embryo  2-lobed,  their  flow- 
ers !f.  and  5  parted,  their  leaves  net-veined,  and  their  wood,  if  any,  growing 


116  THE    KOSE. 

by  annual  external  layers,  are  classed,  with  the  Crowfoots,  Crucifers, 
Cranebills,  &c.,  in  the  province  of  the  EXOGENS.*  It  is  a  large  and 
important  Order,  including  82  genera  and  1000  species,  arranged  in 
several  suborders  (see  Botanist  and  Florist,  p.  101).  They  are  chiefly 
natives  of  the  N.  Temperate  regions.  Their  prevailing  property  in 
bark  and  root  is  astringency.  Prussic  acid  occurs  in  the  Almond  and 
Apple  suborders.  Many  of  the  species  produce  edible  fruits. 

The  Peach  tree  (Amygdalus  persica)  is  a  native  of  Persia.  The 
Nectarine  is  a  variety  of  the  same  species.  In  recent  botanies  it  is 
Prunus  vulgdris.  The  Wild  Plum  of  our  own  forests  is  Prunus 
Americana.  The  Garden  Plum  (P.  domestica)  is  a  native  of  Europe. 
The  Cherries  are  also  various  species  of  Prunus.  The  Cherry  Laurel 
(P.  Carolinidnd),  a  beautiful  evergreen  tree  of  the  S.  States,  has  so 
much  prussic  acid  in  its  leaves  and  cherries  as  to  render  them 
poisonous.  The  seed  of  the  Peach  is  poison  for  the  same  reason. 

The  Blackberry  (Rubus  villosus)  is  powerfully  astringent.  R.  stri- 
gdsus  is  the  delicious  Raspberry ;  R.  occidentdlis,  the  Thimble-berry; 
R.  odordtus,  the  Mulberry.  R.  spectdbilis,  the  Shadberry,  bears  the 
finest  fruit  in  Oregon. 

The  Attar  of  Roses,  an  essential  oil  of  exceeding  fragrance,  is  dis- 
tilled from  Rosa  Damascena  and  R.  moschdta.  20,000  flowers  are 


*  It  will  now  be  seen  that  from  the  leaf  alone,  or  from  the  smallest  fragment  of  it, 
the  place  of  a  plant  in  the  natural  system  of  classification  can  be  determined.  It  is 
the  venation  of  the  leaf  that  affords  the  criterion,  and  this  pervades  the  fragment  as 
well  as  the  whole.  We  have  now  considered  three  diverse  modes  or  types,  which  are 
severally  characteristic  of  the  three  Grand  Divisions  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 
First,  the  forked-venation  of  the  Cryptogams,  best  seen  in  the  Ferns  (p.  21).  Here  the 
veinlets  divide  and  subdivide  each  into  2  smaller  ones,  which  run  on  straight  from 
center  to  circumference— terminating  in  the  margin  or  in  a  fruit-cluster,  never  re- 
uniting when  once  parted.  This  is  the  simplest  of  all  kinds  of  venation,  and  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  simplest  of  all  plants  which  rise  above  the  purely  cellular  Mosses,  where 
there  are  no  veins  at  all.  Second,  the  parallel-venation  of  the  Flowering  Endogens, 
seen  in  the  Tulip,  and  the  Grasses.  Here  the  veins  run  parallel  to  each  other  on  the 
surface,  without  dividing  or  interlacing,  so  that  the  leaf  may  be  torn  from  base  to 
apex  regularly  along  the  course  of  any  of  the  veins.  Such  an  arrangement  of  vein*, 
comparatively  simple,  is  associated  with  flowers  always  ternate  in  their  parts,  seeds 
always  with  one  cotyledon  in  its  embryo,  and  a  stem  without  bark  or  annual  woody 
layers  (p.  33).  Thirdly,  the  netted-venation  of  the  Flowering  Exogens,  just  studied  in 
the  Buttercups,  and  now  seen  in  the  Apple-tree.  In  such  leaves  the  venation  becomes 
intricate.  The  veins  divide  to  infinity  and  their  ramifications  reunite  as  often,  form- 
ing a  network  all  through  the  leafy  tissue,  as  beautifully  illustrated  in  "  skeleton 
leaves."  This,  the  highest  type  of  venation,  is  associated  with  the  highest  develop- 
ment of  vegetable  life— flowers  many-parted,  seeds  with  two  cotyledons,  and  wood 
(if  any)  with  bark  and  annual  layers. 


PISUM.  11? 

required  to  make  a  rupee's  weight  (one-half  ounce),  which  sells 
for  $50. 

To  the  genus  Pyrus  belong  the  Pear  Tree,  Apple  Tree,  and  Medlar. 
P.  coronaria,  with  flowers  as  fine  as  the  Rose,  is  our  Wild  Crab  Tree. 

The  Quince  (Cydonia  vulgar  is)  is  a  native  of  Austria.  C.japonica, 
the  beautiful  Japan  Quince,  is  from  Japan. 

The  Spireas  are  always  conspicuous  in  the  gardens  and  parks,  as 
well  as  the  Roses  and  Japan  Quince.  So  also  the  Hawthorns  and 
Mountain  Ash. 

Scientific  Terms.— Corymb.  Double  flower.  Metamorphosis. 
Obcordate.  Prickles.  Shrub.  Suspended  ovule.  Thorns. 

XXIX.  THE  PEA  AND  ITS  TRIBE. 

Description. —  Of  this  large  and  important  Order  we 
have  no  plant  more  characteristic  than  the  common  Garden 
Pea.  It  is  also  represented  by  the  Sweet  Pea,  Wild  Pea, 
Locust,  and  Wistaria,  which  may  be  studied  in  this 
connection. 

Analysis. — The  pupil  will  answer  queries  like  the  fol- 
lowing :  What  is  its  term  or  period  of  life  ?  What  is  its 
habit  ?  *  How  does  it  climb  ?  What  is  the  composition  of  its 
leaves  ?  What  the  outline  of  the  leaflets  ? — of  the  stipules  ? 
Has  it  stipels  (little  stipules  at  the  base  of  each  leaflet)  ? 

The  Tendrils.  A  new  feature  now  appears.  Tendrils 
are  growing  from  the  extremity  of  the  rachis  of  the  pinnate 
leaves,  and  they  are  themselves  compound.  Each  tendril 
consists  of  3  or  more  coiling  threads  or  fibers — aids  to  the 
plant  in  climbing,  f  Leaves  thus  furnished  are  called  cirrJwus. 

The  Inflorescence  consists  of  peduncles  springing  from 
the  axils,  each  bearing  2  or  more  white  flowers. 

*  Habit  denotes  the  form,  appearance,  and  conduct  of  a  plant,  as  it  would  strike 
the  general  observer,  without  reference  to  scientific  accuracy. 

t  The  action  of  a  tendril  looks  almost  like  intelligence.  It  remains  extended,  and 
straight,  with  only  a  slight  curve  or  hook  at  the  extremity,  as  if  blindly  searching  for 
some  object  to  lean  upon.  If  such  support  is  not  soon  found,  it  often  sweeps  around 


118  THE    PEA. 

The  Flower  is  nodding,  5-parted,  and  irregular  after  a 
fashion  termed. papilionaceous  (butterfly-shaped).  There  are 
5  sepals,  united  at  the  base  and  free  above.  Of  the  5  petals 
(1 )  the  upper  and  odd  one  is  the  largest,  and  in  the  bud 
covers  all  the  rest.  It  is  called  the  banner  or  vexillum. 
The  others  are  in  pairs  ;  the  2  lowest  being  the  keel  petals 
(carince)  ;  the  2  intermediate,  the  wings  (alee)*  Of  the  10 
stamens  (2),  9  are  united  by  their  filaments,  while  the  10th 
is  separate  and  free,  a  condition  termed  diadelphous,  that  is, 
in  2  sets.  The  pistil  is  one  only,  and  that  (3) 
a  simple  carpel  with  one  style  and  stigma.  The 
style  is  bent  at  a  right  angle,  and  flattened  as  if 
laterally,  with  a  groove  on  the  back  and  a  bearded 
line  in  front  next  the  free  stamen,  f 

The   Fruit  is  a  legume.     It  is  a  dry  pod, 
oblique  in  form,  one-celled,  2-valved,  opening  at 
both  its  edges  (sutures)  and  having  the  seeds  in 
one  row  along  the  front  suture — not  along  both 
as  in  a  silique  (p.  101).    Much  is  learned  by  a 
careful  study  of  the  legume.     Open  it  at  the 
7,  a  legume,      front  suture.    The  two  valves  still  conjoined  at 
the  back  will  represent  a  leaf,  with  seeds  like  buds  developed 


horizontally,  describing  in  an  hour  or  two  a  complete  circuit,  like  the  free  end  of  the 
twining  stem  or  branch  of  the  Morning  Glory  (p.  186).  When  at  length  the  tendril, 
with  the  hook  at  its  extremity,  touches  a  twig  or  other  object,  it  immediately  twines 
about  it,  while  at  the  same  time  in  its  middle  portions  it  coils  up  on  itself,  as  if  by 
shortening  its  own  length  to  draw  the  plant  closer  to  its  support.  The  mechanical 
difficulty  of  coiling  up  while  fixed  at  both  ends  is  overcome  by  its  turning  in  opposite 
directions,  causing  a  sharp  angle  where  its  course  is  reversed.  This  is  best  seen  in 
the  Gourd  Tribe  and  the  Grape-vine.  After  its  hold  is  thus  secured  it  grows  strong 
and  tough  ;  but  if  it  fails  to  reach  its  object  it  soon  droops,  coils  up,  and  perishes. 

*  In  the  Pea  tribe  the  banner  is  brightly  colored  so  as  to  justify  the  name,  since 
when  expanded  it  cannot  fail  to  attract  insects.  The  lower  petals  are  frequently 
joined  together  in  one  piece,  forming  a  kind  of  doorstep  on  which  the  insects  may 
readily  alight.  On  their  attempting  to  enter  the  throat  of  the  flower,  by  springing 
open  the  alse,  the  stamens  beneath  are  liberated  and  are  dashed  with  some  force 
against  the  insect's  body,  so  as  to  cover  it  with  pollen. 

t  In  the  Sweet  Pea,  of  the  genus  Lathyrus,  the  style  is  flattened  on  the  back  and 
in  front ;  and  this  circumstance  alone  separates  these  two  genera. 


PISUM. 


119 


FIG.  XXIX.— Pisum  sativum :  1,  the  corolla  displayed  ;  2,  the  diadelphous  sta- 
mens ;  3,  the  ovary  dissected,  and  the  peculiar  style  and  stigma ;  4,  a  seed ;  5,  the 
embryo  with  one  of  the  cotyledons  ;  6,  a  seed  germinating. 


120  THE    LOCUST    TREE. 

along  the  margins,  as  if  a  leaf  were  transformed  into  the  pis- 
til, and  (like  the  leaf  of  a  Begonia  when  planted)  produced 
buds  at  its  edges.* 

The  Seed  is  so  large  (4)  that  it  may  be  analyzed  without 
a  microscope.  Remove  the  testa  and  you  find  within,  the 
embryo- alone,  as  in  the  seed  of  the  Apple.  This  consists  of 

2  large  cotyledons,  and  between  them  (5)  a  conspicuous  rad- 
icle and  plumule. 

GERMINATION. —  Out  of  the  thick  cotyledons,  the  radi- 
cle and  plumule  draw  their  first  nourishment  and  wake  into 
life  and  growth.  In  the  figure  (6),  the  radicle  has  sent  forth 

3  rootlets  tending  downward,  and  the  plumule,  a  stem  tipped 
with  a  bud  tending  upward. 

The  Name  is  the  ancient  Latin  Pisum ;  P.  satlvum, 
that  of  the  species,  indicates  that  the  seed  is  sown  in 
gardens.  Its  native  country  is  unknown. 

Scientific  Terms.— Alae.  Banner.  Cannae.  Cirrhous  leaves. 
Diadelphous.  Front  suture.  Keel  petals.  Legume.  Papilionaceous. 
Rachis.  Stipels.  Vexillum.  Wing  petals. 

*  The  fruit,  as  well  as  each  organ  of  the  flower,  is  a  modified  leaf,  or  leaves.  The 
simple  fruit,  formed  of  a  single  pistil,  like  the  achenium  of  the  Crowfoots  or  the 
legume  of  the  Pea,  is  a  single  leaf.  It  is  folded  upward  so  that  its  upper  surface 
becomes  the  inner,  and  its  united  edges  the  placentae  where  the  seeds  are  developed. 
In  the  Peach,  another  simple  fruit,  the  upper  skin  of  the  leaf  is  transformed. into  the 
stone,  inclosing  the  one  seed  ;  the  tissue  into  the  pulp,  and  the  lower  cuticle  into  the 
downy,  blushing  rind.  The  furrowed  line  on  one  side  of  the  peach  marks  the  union 
of  the  two  edges  of  the  carpellary  leaf.  The  apple  is  a  5-carpelled  fruit  formed  of  the 
5  united  pistils.  In  its  construction  the  5  carpellary  leaves  are  combined  with  the  5 
calyx  leaves.  The  upper  surface  of  the  former  becomes  the  parchment-lining  of  the 
5  cells  of  the  core,  and  the  tissues  of  them  all  grow  into  the  luscious  pulp.  The  orange 
is  formed  of  twelve  leaves,  each  transformed  into  a  carpel,  distinct  in  the  pulp,  but 
completely  blended  in  the  rind,  while  in  the  gooseberry  the  venation  of  the  several 
leaves  of  which  it  is  formed  are  still  distinctly  visible.  The  leaf  is  thus  the  rudiment, 
type,  or  pattern,  whence  every  organ  of  the  plant  is  developed,  modified  in  color,  shape, 
and  structure  to  subserve,  first,  the  special  purposes  in  its  own  economy,  and  ulti- 
mately, the  interests  of  the  animal  creation,  and  even  man  himself,  "  to  whom  the 
sweetness  of  the  fruit  and  the  beauty  of  the  flower  must  have  had  reference  in  the 
gracious  intuitions  of  Him  who  created  them  both." 


ROBLNIA.  121 


XXX.  THE  LOCUST  TREE. 

Description. — This  elegant  and  useful  tree  grows  native 
in  mountain  forests,  from  the  Ohio  Eiver  southward,  and  is 
generally  cultivated  for  timber,  ornament  or  shade  in  nearly 
all  the  States.*  In  May  and  June,  amid  the  general  festivi- 
ties of  nature,  the  Locust  displays  her  pendant  clusters  of 
white  fragrant  flowers,  enlivening  the  dark  green  of  the 
graceful  foliage. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  KEGICXNT. —  The  leaves  are  com- 
pound— of  what  form?  How  do  they  differ  from  the  leaves 
of  the  Eose  ?  What  are  the  number,  margin,  outline  and 
apex  of  the  leaflets  ?  They  are  connected  with  the  rachis  by 
a  short  stalk — petiolules.  Are  there  any  stipules  ?  A  pair 
of  short,  sharp  spines  occupy  their  place,  especially  in  the 
younger  shoots  ;  we  may  call  them  stipular  spines. 

THE  FLO  WEB  REGION. — Compare  the  flower  of  the  Locust 
with  that  of  the  Pea,  and  notice  the  differences  in  the  calyx, 
banner,  wings,  keel,  stamens,  and  especially  the  style  (3). 
Is  the  inflorescence  centrifugal  or  centripetal  ?  It  is  a  per- 
fect example  of  a  raceme.  Are  the  stamens  (1,  2)  diadel- 
phous  ?  Compare  specimens  of  the  fruit  (4)  which  have  sur- 
vived the  Winter,  or  which  ripen  in  September,  with  that  of 
the  Pea.  Is  the  pod  1-carpelled  or  2-carpelled  ?  Has  the 
seed  1  or  2  cotyledons  ?  Any  albumen  ? 

Sensitiveness. — Note  the  tumid  or  fleshy  bundles  at  the 
joints  between  the  petiole  and  stem,  and  the  petiolules  and 
rachis.  Have  these  any  connection  with  the  spontaneous 

*  The  Locust  Tree  attains  its  greatest  perfection  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  * 
where  it  often  rises  to  the  height  of  90  feet  with  a  diameter  of  4  feet.  For  strength 
and  durability  its  timber  is  pre-eminent,  and  therefore  largely  employed  in  shipbuild- 
ing, railway  ties,  and  fence  posts.  As  a  shade  tree  its  beauty  is  often  marred  by  the 
depredation  of  worms,  which  eat  at  the  branches  until  they  break  and  fall.  When 
collected  in  groves  it  seems  less  liable  to  this  evil,  and  grows  with  great  rapidity,  often 
reaching  a  height  of  8  or  10  feet  the  first  season. 

6 


FIG.  XXX.— Robinia  Pseudacacia  :  1,  the  calyx,  stamens  and  pistil,  or  the  flower 
minus  the  corolla  ;  2,  the  stamens  displayed ;  3,  the  pistil  with  ovary  dissected ;  4, 
the  fruit. 


ROBINIA.  123 

movements  of  the  leaves  for  which  the  Locust  is  so  remark- 
able ?  When,  in  securing  your  specimen,  you  grasped  the 
branchlet,  the  leaves  felt  and,  as  it  were,  resented  the 
violence.  Did  you  not  notice  how  they  fell  forward 
toward  the  branchlet,  while  every  leaflet  be.nt  forward 
and  upward  until  each  met  its  fellow  as  if  in  sympathetic 
embrace  ? 

Similar  movements  occur  at  evening  with  the  departure 
of  the  sunlight.  Then  not  a  few  leaves  only,  but  the  count- 
less host  on  every  branch  bend,  bow,  and  fold  their  leaflets 
face  to  face,  and  so  sleep  through  the  hours  of  darkness. 
When  the  dawn  wakens  the  Robin  to  his  song,  it  also  wakes 
the  Robinia,  and  her  leaves  with  the  advancing  light  slowly 
unfold  to  the  sweet  influences  of  the  vital  air.* 

The  True  Sensitive  Plant  (Mimosa  pudica) 
is  native  in  tropical  America  from  the  Isthmus 
to  Brazil.  Its  flowers  are  collected  in  roundish 
heads,  its  fruits  are  legumes  of  a  peculiar  pattern 
called  laments,  having  joints  between  the  seeds 
(5).  The  leaves  are  twice  compounded  (digi- 
tate-pinnate). When  expanded,  they  are  broad 
and  showy,  covering  the  plant  with  verdure.  But 
at  a  touch  of  the  finger,  or  the  wing  of  a  bee,  they 
fold  up  and  contract,  one  after  another,  so  as 
almost  to  vanish  from  sight.f  This  results  from  a 
series  of  motions  as  follows  :  1st,  the  numerous  5' a  loment. 
leaflets  move  upward  and  forward,  twins  meeting  and 
together  covering  the  pair  next  before  them ;  2d,  the  four 
divisions  thus  folded  move  toward  one  another  as  a  fan 


*  The  leaves  of  our  Wild  Cassias,  which  open  their  yellow  flowers  in  August,  are 
also  very  sensitive,  closing  their  numerous  leaflets  when  touched. 

t  At  Aspinwall,  the  traveler,  first  stepping  from  the  car  into  a  dense  green  patch 
of  Mimosa,  is  confounded  at  seeing  the  whole  patch  disappear,  leaving  the  ground 
almost  bare,  and  again  after  a  few  minutes  looking  as  verdant  as  ever  ! 


124 


THE   LOCUST   TKEE. 


closes ;  3d,  the  whole  leaf  falls  backward  and  downward 
by  the  joint  at  the  base  of  the  petiole.* 

The  Name,  Robinia,  was  conferred  in  honor  of  John 
Kobin,  herbalist  to  Henry  IV.  of  France,  A.  D.  1620.  By 
his  son  the  Locust  was  first  cultivated  in  Europe  in 


5,  Mimosa  pudica  ;  6,  Desmodium  gyrans. 

1640,  under  the  popular  name  Acacia ;  hence  its  specific 
name,  R.  pseudacacia  (False  Acacia).  Two  other  species  are 
native  in  southern  forests  and  often  seen  in  cultivation. 
(See  Bot.  &  Flor.,p.  95.) 

*  The  Moving  Plant  (Desmodium  gyrans)  is  another  member  of  this  great  Order. 
It  is  native  in  India  along  the  Ganges.  In  this  country  it  is  cultivated  in  the  green- 
house. The  leaves  are  pinnately  trifoliate,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  very  small  leaflets 
placed  a  little  helow  the  large  terminal  oolong  leaflet.  These  are  wonderfully  en- 
dowed with  the  power  of  spontaneous  movements.  Their  motions  are  not  occasioned 
by  touch  or  irritation,  but  are  voluntary  and  habitual,  The  small  leaflets  are  more 
perceptibly  active,  moving  steadily  or  fitfully,  upward  or  downward  or  gyrating  in 
circles,  during  the  hours  of  sunshine.  The  large  leaflet  is  quietly  erect  during  the 
day,  but  slowly  falls  to  a  pendant  position  in  the  night. 


(EtfOTHEBA.  125 

Classification.. — The  vast  Order  of  LEG  TIMINGS^,  the 
Leguminous  Plants,  represented  by  the  Pea,  Locust,  Cassia, 
and  Mimosa,  agree  in  having  alternate,  stipulate,  compound 
leaves,  ovary  simple,  fruit  a  legume,  and  seeds  without  albumen. 

The  Leguminous  Plants  number  not  less  than  400  genera  and 
6500  species,  350  species  being  natives  of  the  United  States.  The  Order 
is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  the  variety  and  value  of  its 
products.  Few,  if  any,  are  poisonous. 

Among  its  food  plants,  are  the  Beans,  Peas,  Lentils,  and  Peanuts  ; 
among  its  forage  plants,  the  Clovers,  Lucerns,  and  Carobs  (called 
husks  in  Luke  15  :  16). 

Of  gums  and  balsams,  we  have  Gum  Arabic,  Tolu,  Senegal,  Kino, 
Copaiva,  Tragacanth  ;  of  drugs  and  dyes,  Indigo,  Liquorice,  Catechu, 
Senna,  Logwood,  Camwood,  Brazil  wood,  and  others  innumerable. 

The  timber  of  the  Locust  tree,  Laburnum,  Dalbergia,  and  Itaka  are 
highly  prized  in  shipbuilding  and  cabinetwork. 

Few  fruits  in  flavor  excel  the  Tamarind,  and  the  powerful  perfume 
of  the  Tonga  Bean  (Dipterix  odordta)  is  well  known. 

Among  its  floral  treasures,  what  element  of  beauty  is  lacking  when 
we  have  the  Wistaria,  Golden  Chain,  Sweet  Pea,  the  Acacias,  Poinci- 
ana,  and  Clianthus  ? 

Scientific  Terms. — Petiolules.    Stipular  spines. 

XXXI.   THE   EVENING   PRIMROSE. 

Description. — A  morning  walk  in  June,  through  up- 
land meadows,  along  fence-rows,  and  in  sunny  wastes  gen- 
erally, will  be  rewarded  by  the  sight  of  the  tall  Evening 
Primrose,  resplendent  with  its  yellow  flowers,  which  opened 
the  night  before.  It  is  a  biennial  herb,  3  to  6  feet  high, 
roughish,  hairy,  and  leafy  throughout. 

Analysis. — The  ffioot  is  axial,  and  usually  biennial, 
like  the  Beet  bearing  only  leaves  during  the  first  season, 
and  storing  away  in  the  thick  tuberous  axis  a  surplus  of 
nutritive  matter  to  aid  the  larger  growth  of  stem,  flower  and 


126  THE    EVENING    PRIMROSE. 

fruit  the  following  year.  By  cultivation  the  tubers  are  im- 
proved in  size  and  quality.* 

The  Stem,  early  the  second  year,  rises  erect  and  stout, 
2-6  feet  high,  terete,  hairy,  simple  at  first,  but  at  length 
widely  branched  like  a  little  tree  (hence  often  called  the 
Tree  Primrose).  Sometimes  the  stem  is  rough,  with  short, 
bristly  hairs. 

The  leaves  are  many,  closely  ranged  around  the  stem  in 
an  order  called  alternate,  but  easily  seen  to  be  in  a  spiral 
line  running  from  right  to  left  (see  note,  p.  193).  Their 
outline  is  lanceolate,  margin  finely  toothed  in  a  manner 
called  repand-dentate,  like  the  border  of  a  parasol.  The 
lowest  are  petiolate,  the  upper  sessile,  and  all  pubescent. 

Inflorescence  centripetal,  the  lower  buds  opening  first, 
forming  a  bracted  spike  which  lengthens  as  the  bloom 
advances  upward,  until,  at  length,  there  are  at  once  fruit 
below,  flowers  in  the  midst,  and  buds  at  the  top. 

The  Flowers  are  regular,  symmetrical,  4-parted.  N  The 
calyx  is  the  remarkable  feature.  It  consists  of  a  long,  slen- 
der tube  adhering  to  the  ovary  below,  expanding  into  4 
sepals  at  the  top,  where  it  also  supports  4  broad  yellow 
petals  and  8  stamens,  f  The  ovary  is  sessile,  oblong,  with  a 


*  The  tubers  contain  much  nutriment,  and  before  the  discovery  of  the  Potato  were 
cultivated  for  food.  Wine-bibbers  ate  them  after  dinner,  as  olives  are  eaten,  suppos- 
ing them  to  give  greater  relish  to  their  potations. 

t  Fig.  XXXI,  1,  representing  a  vertical  section  of  the  flower  of  Evening  Primrose, 
is  worthy  of  careful  study.  It  shows  very  plainly  the  nature  of  the  adherent  or  supe- 
rior calyx.  Now  it  is  understood  that  the  floral  organs  all  issue  together  from  the 
torus  (1)— the  base  of  the  flower.  Then  in  this  flower  the  sepals,  petals,  stamens  and 
pistils  are  fused  together  into  one  body  as  far  upward  as  the  top  of  the  ovary  (o).  At 
this  point  the  style  (which  is  compounded  of  4)-  becomes  free  from  the  mass  of  the 
other  organs,  which  continue  in  the  form  of  a  tube  to  the  throat  (e).  Here  the  tube 
is  resolved  into  its  constituents,  viz.  the  4  sepals,  the  4  petals,  and  the  8  stamens- 
all  becoming  free  and  distinct,  and  finally  the  style  is  also  resolved  into  the  4  sepa- 
rate stigmas.  In  the  related  genus,  Epilobium,  "  the  calyx  tube  is  not  prolonged 
above  the  ovary,"  but  is  resolved  Into  distinct  organs,  all  at  once,  at  the  summit  of 
the  ovary.  Other  genera,  as  Circaea,  are  intermediate  between  these  two,  having  the 
calyx  tube  slightly  prolonged. 


(EtfOTHERA. 


127 


FIG.  XXXI.— CEn6thera  biennis  :  1,  vertical  section  of  a  flower ;  2,  3,  stamens 
4,  pollen  grains  ;  5,  the  4  stigmas  on  1  style  ;  6,  a  capsule,  4-valved  ;  7,—  4-celled 
8,  a  seed ;  9,  seed  dissected  ;  10,  the  2-lobed  embryo. 


128  LADY'S  EARDROPS. 

long  filiform  style  inclosed  in  the  calyx  tube  and  bearing  at 
the  summit  4  slender,  spreading  stigmas.  The  petals  are 
contorted  in  aestivation.  The  anthers  are  versatile — fixed 
by  the  middle  point.  The  pollen  grains  are  angular,  and 
loosely  connected  by  spidery  threads.  After  a  night  of 
bloom,  the  flower  withers,  breaks  from  the  top  of  the  ovary, 
and  falls  entire.* 

The  J^t'uU  is  an  oblong,  4-sided,  4-celled  capsule,  filled 
with  small  seeds  which  have  no  albumen. 

The  Name. — (Endthera,  the  title  of  this  genus,  comes 
from  the  Greek,  meaning  wine-hunter,  from  the  notion  that 
the  roots  cause  a  thirst  for  wine.  The  cuts  represent 
(E.  biennis  (biennial),  one  of  the  many  species,  f 

XXXII.    LADY'S   EARDROPS. 

Description.  —  These  floral  gems  are  natives  of  the 
Andes  from  Mexico  to  Patagonia.  They  began  to  be  vknown 
in  Europe  about  A.  D.  1780 — in  America,  1800 ;  and  are 
now  universally  cultivated.  They  are  smooth,  tender  shrubs, 
requiring  protection  in  our  winters,  and  are  propagated  by 
slips  and  cuttings,  as  they  seldom  ripen  their  seeds. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  KEGION. — The  root,  as  we  grow 

*  The  flowers  open  about  seven  in  the  evening,  just  at  Summer  twilight.  The 
mode  of  expansion  is  very  curious.  The  petals  are  held  together  at  the  summit  by 
the  hooked  ends  of  the  calyx.  The  segments  of  this  flower-cup  at  first  separate  at 
the  base,  and  the  yellow  petals  may  be  seen  peeping  through  these  openings  long  be- 
fore the  flower  is  fully  blown.  The  expansion  is  gradual  until  the  petals  are  free  from 
the  confinement  of  the  hooks,  but  when  this  is  effected,  the  flower  unfolds  very 
quickly  for  a  minute  or  two  and  then  stops,  after  which  it  opens  gradually,  spreading 
itself  out  quite  flat.  The  whole  process  occupies  half  an  hour,  and  in  some  cases  a 
little  sudden  noise  is  made  as  it  jerks  the  topmost  hooks  asunder.  It  has  been  stated 
by  Pursh  and  others  that  this  plant,  when  in  full  flower,  can  be  seen  at  a  great  dis- 
tance, even  in  a  dark  night  when  all  other  objects  are  invisible,  having  a  glow  of 
bright  white  (see  note,  p.  85),  as  if  its  flowers  were  phosphorescent.  There  is  evidently 
in  this  a  reference  to  the  visits  of  some  night-flying  moth  adapted  to  suck  its  nectar 
in  pay  for  scattering  its  pollen. 

t  Species  100,  attaining  their  highest  development  in  numbers  and  beauty  W.  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Their  flowers  are  yellow,  white,  purple,  2' ,  3',  or  even  4'  in  diameter. 


FUCHSIA. 


FIG.  XXXII. — Fuchsia  coccinia  :  2,  vertical  section  of  a  flower. 


the  plant,  is  represented  by  adventitious  fibers  issuing  or 
"striking"  here  and  there  from  the  lower  joints  of  the  slip 
(severed  branch)  which  remains  as  planted.  The  stem, 
although  woody,  is  weak,  slender,  reclining,  with  smooth 
purplish  bark  and  drooping  branches.  The  leaves  are 
neatly  cut,  smooth,  pinni-veined  with  reddened  veins,  op- 
posite, ovate,  serrate  and  petiolate. 

The  J?2owers  issue  either  singly  from  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  or  clustered  at  the  end  of  the  branches,,  always  droop- 
ing on  slender  peduncles.  They  are  regular,  perfect,  sym- 
metrical, 4-parted.  The  calyx  is  colored  in  contrast  with 
the  corolla,  its  tube  inclosing,  and  adherent  to,  the  ovary 
below,  and  opening  into  4  lanceolate  sepals  above,  bearing 
on  its  throat  the  4  erect,  convolute  petals  and  the  8  long, 
exserted  stamens.  The  style  is  free  from  the  calyx  tube, 


130  LADY'S  EARDROPS. 

twice  longer  than  the  stamens,  with  a  capitate,  (head-like ; 
caput,  head)  stigma.*  The  pollen  grains  are  angular  and 
loosely  webbed  together  as  in  (Enothera.  Crowning  the 
ovary  within  the  calyx  tube  are  8  nectariferous  glands. 

The  Fruit  is  a  red  berry,  full  of  minute  seeds,  but  seldom 
coming  to  maturity  in  this  country. 

The  Name. — The  genus  Fuchsia  was  dedicated  by  Lin- 
naeus to  Leonard  Fuchs,  a  celebrated  German  botanist  of  the 
16th  century.  F.  coccinia  (Scarlet  Fuchsia),  with  flowers 
axillary,  calyx  bright  red,  from  Chili,  was  the  earliest  known 
species.  Others,  now  common,  are  F.  fulgens,  with  flowers 
clustered,  calyx  tube  longer  than  its  lobes,  which  are  often 
tinged  with  green,  and  ovate,  somewhat  heart-shaped  leaves  ; 
F.  microphylla,  with  small  elliptical  leaves,  calyx  funnel- 
shaped,  and  very  sweet  berries.  But  the  species  are  much 
mixed  by  hybridization.^  (Sot.  and  Flor.,  p.  127.) 

Classification. — (Enothera  and  Fuchsia  are  members  of 
the  Order  OSTAGRACE^: — the  Onagrads.  It  will  be  seen  that 
they  coincide  in  the  following  points : 

Leaves  simple,  pinni- veined. 

Flowers  perfect,  symmetrical,  regular. 

Calyx  tubular,  its  lobes  valvate  in  aestivation. 

Petals  perigynous,  convolute  in  aestivation. 

Stamens  perigynous,  once  or  twice  as  many  as  the  sepals. 

Ovary  inferior  (adherent),  2-4  celled,  with  1  style. 

Seeds  anatropous,  without  albumen. 

The  Onagrads  comprehend  22  genera,  450  species.  They  are 
chiefly  natives  of  temperate  climes,  and  specially  numerous  in  America. 
They  are  of  little  importance  to  man,  except  for  their  beautiful  and 

*  The  arrangement  of  these  organs  seems  nicely  planned  in  favor  of  self-fertiliza- 
tion. But  the  falling  pollen  would  seldom  touch  the  stigmatic  end  of  the  stigma, 
where  alone  it  would  be  effectual.  Moreover  the  copious  nectar  implies  that  the  help 
of  some  insect  is  still  needed — some  long-tongued  moth  or  humming  bird,  probably, 
not  found  in  this  country.  In  New  Zealand,  a  bird  (Anthornis  Melanura)  is  fre- 
quently seen  with  its  head  covered  with  the  pollen  of  a  native  species  of  Fuchsia. 

t  Hybrids  are  artificially  produced  by  transferring  the  pollen  of  one  species  to  the 
stigmas  of  another,  and  planting  the  seeds  which  result. 


OSMOEHIZA.  131 

showy  flowers.  Zauschneria  is  a  genus  of  handsome  herbs,  native  of 
California,  with  flowers  strikingly  similar  to  those  of  Fuchsia.  The 
Clarkias  *  of  California  are  proverbially  beautiful.  The  Willow  Herb 
(Epilobium  augusti folium),  with  its  showy  spike  of  blue-purple  flow- 
ers, is  a  tall,  familiar  object  in  the  New  England  wilds.  The  Enchant- 
er's Nightshades  (Circaea)  are  pretty  little  herbs  of  our  damp  woods, 
always  welcome  to  the  botanist  for  the  charming  simplicity  of  the 
flowers,  being  2-parted  throughout. 

Scientific  Terms  in  XXXI  and  XXXII :    Adventitious.       Cap- 
itate.   Repand.    Slip. 


XXXIII.    SWEET  CICELY. 

Description. — The  Cicelys  grow  wild  from  Canada  to 
Carolina,  and  westward  to  Oregon.  Their  favorite  haunts 
are  in  damp,  rocky  woods.  If  there  be  a  vein  of  water — a 
rivulet  half  hidden  under  decaying  leaves,  oozing  along 
among  stones  and  tangled  roots,  there  will  the  Cicelys  stand 
luxuriating  in  the  rich  mold  in  company  with  Toothroots, 
Trilliums,  White  Violets  and  other  plants  which  bloom  in 
May  and  June. 

Analysis. — In  the  ffioot)  Sweet  Cicely  possesses  qualities 
which  make  it  favorably  known.  It  is  perennial,  enduring 
the  frosts  of  many  winters.  It  consists  of  a  short  body  or 
axis  soon  dividing  into  several  long,  descending  branches,  all 
rather  fleshy,  sweet-scented  when  bruised,  and  with  a  spicy, 
anise-like  flavor.  It  is  esteemed  in  medicine  as  a  tonic  and 
expectorant. 

The  Stem,  generally  branching,  arises  2  to  3  feet.  The 
internodes  are  hollow,  straight,  uncommonly  long,  and  mi- 
nutely pubescent. 


*  Named  for  Capt.  Clark  of  the  famous  Lewis  &  Clark's  expedition,  which  made 
the  first  exploration  of  the  Pacific  Coast  (1804).  (See  Barnes's  Hundred  Years  of 
American  Independence,  p.  361.) 


132 


SWEET    CICELY. 


The  Z/eares  are  alternate,  large,  decompound— bi  or  tri- 
ternate  (the  terminal  divisions  pinnatifid  or  pinnate),  the 
radical  one  on  a  long  petiole,  the  others  nearly  or  quite  ses- 
sile, leaflets  thin,  ovate,  pointed,  incisely  toothed,  sparingly 
pubescent.  The  petioles  are  peculiar,  being  flattened  or 
winged  below  and  so  embracing  or  sheathing  the  stem. 

The  Inflorescence  is  in  compound  umbels,  usually  two 
together,  terminating  the  stem  and  branches.  Each  com- 
pound umbel  consists  of  3  to  6  simple  ones  (umbellets),  whose 
stalks  are  called  rays.  At  the  base  of  the  umbel,  are  several 


FIG.  XXXIII.— Osmorhiza  longistylis  :  3,  the  flower  ;  5,  the  fruit ;  3,  a  cremocarp  ; 
7,  a  cremocarp  opening,  on  the  carpophore  ;  4,  the  short  styles  of  O.  brevistylis  :  1, 
cremocarp  of  Carrot ;  2,  the  same  in  a  cross-section. 

(1 — 3)  narrow  bracts  more  or  less  leaf -like — an  involucre. 
Also  at  the  base  of  each  umbellet,  is  a  whorl  of  oblong  bract- 
lets  bordered  with  hairs  (ciliate) — the  involucel. 

The  Flowers  in  each  umbellet  are  about  5.  Do  you 
miss  the  calyx  ?  No  sepals  appear  ;  but  under  the  flower,  at 
the  top  of  the  pedicel,  is  a  swelling  which  we  may  regard  as 
the  calyx-tube  adhering  to,  and  inclosing  the  ovary  ;  while 


OSMORHIZA.  133 

the  teeth  (ends  of  the  sepals),  which  we  might  expect  to  see 
as  in  the  Apple  flower,  are  obsolete  or  missing.  The  5  small 
petals  are  conspicuous  for  their  snowy  whiteness.  The  point 
of  each  is  abruptly  inflected  so  as  to  make  it  appear  notched 
(emarginate)  at  the  end.  There  are  5  stamens,  inflected  like 
the  petals.  The  two  styles  are  prominent,  slender,  as  long 
as  the  stamens,  gradually  enlarged  at  the  base  into  the  ovary, 
or  rather  into  a  disk  which  crowns  it.  The  ovary  is  inferior, 
i.  e.,  adherent  to  the  calyx  tube  which  incloses  it,  2-carpeled, 
and  2-ovuled. 

The  Fruit  of  this  Tribe  of  plants  is  of  curious  structure, 
and  affords  the  best,  often  the  only  characters  for  distin- 
guishing between  the  genera.  In  Cicely,  its  form  is  linear- 
oblong,  with  a  tapering  base — somewhat  club-shaped,  flattened 
on  the  sides,  crowned  with  the  2  styles.  It  finally  splits  into 
2  carpels  displaying  a  forked  carpophore  (p.  78)  on  which  each 
remains  awhile  suspended.  The  carpels  are  nearly  terete, 
the  face  being  narrow,  and  the  back  with  3  linear,  hispid 
(with  short  stiff  *hairs)  ribs.  This  form  of  fruit  is  called 
cremocarp  (Gr.  kremao,  I  hang,  karpos,  fruit). 

The  Name,  Osmorhlza  (root-scented),  as  well  as  the  spe- 
cific term,  0.  longistylis  (long-styled),  given  to  this  plant,  is 
characteristic.  Another  kind  of  Cicely  ( 0.  brevistylis,  short- 
styled),  growing  in  similar  situations,  will  often  be  found 
and  mistaken  for  this.  In  the  former,  the  styles  are  slender 
and  as  long  as  the  stamens  :  in  the  latter,  conical  and  thrice 
.shorter  ;  the  leaflets  more  pointed  and  pinnatifid  ;  the  bract- 
lets  long-pointed,  and  the  root  less  agreeable  in  taste. 

Scientific  Terms. — Axis  of  root.  Carpophore.  Cremocarp.  De- 
compound. Emarginate.  Inferior  ovary.  Inflected  petals.  Involucre. 
Involucel.  Obsolete.  Pubescent.  Rays  of  umbel.  Sheathing  petiole. 
Umbel.  Umbellet. 


134  GOLDEK    ALEXANDERS. 

XXXIV.  GOLDEN   ALEXANDERS. 

Description. — The  humid  river-banks,  the  meadows  be- 
hind them,  and  even  the  sunny  hills  above  them,  are  fre- 
quently bedecked  in  June  or  May,  with  bright  yellow  umbels, 
which,  with  little  discrimination,  the  country  people  call 
Golden  Alexanders.  We  will  suppose  that  our  young  bot- 
anists return  from  their  morning  rambles  equipped  with 
these  plants  complete — root,  leaf,  flower  and  fruit. 


9 

FIG.  XXXIV.— Carum  aureum  :  2,  a  flower  ;  3,  a  fruit  with  its  thread-like  ribs  and 
persistent  styles  ;  4,  a  cross-section  of  the  same  ;  5,  a  fruit  of  Couium  :  6,  its  cross- 
section  ;  7,  cross-section  of  a  fruit  of  Fennel :  8,  the  same  split  into  its  merocarps 
suspended  on  the  carpophore  ;  9,  a  fruit  of  Parsnip,  showing  the  vittae,  etc. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  EEGIOK. — After  the  lesson  on  the 
Cicely,  the  student  will  see  in  this  plant  striking  analogies, 
with  special  differences.  Both  are  to  be  carefully  noted. 
The  root  is  perennial,  axial,  branching,  more  woody  than 
fleshy,  from  which  annually  arises  a  plant  glabrous  (smooth) 
and  polished.  The  stems  throughout  are  jointed,  branching, 
with  long,  hollow  internodes  as  in  Cicely.  The  leaves  are 
ternate  and  biternate,  the  lower  on  long  petioles  and  some- 


CARUM    AUREUM.  135 

times  pinnately  5-foliate,  the  very  lowest  being  simple  and 
cordate.  The  student  will  compare  the  leaflets  with  those 
of  Cicely,  and  note  their  form  of  outline,  base,  apex,  and 
margin.  The  petioles  are  sheathing  and  stem-clasping  at 
the  base,  as  in  that  plant. 

THE  FLOWER  KEGIOK. — The  umbels  are  axillary  and  ter- 
minal.* Are  they  simple  or  compound  ?  Do  you  find  any 
involucre  and  involucels  ?  Of  what  description  ?  The 
flowers  are  5-parted.  Here  also  the  calyx  consists  of  a  tube 
adhering  to  the  ovary,  with  the  limb  or  teeth  obsolete.  Each 
of  the  5  yellow  petals  has  its  slender  point  inflexed,  with  the 
5  stamens  in  like  manner  inflected.  The  ovary  is  inferior — 
placed  below  the  flower  and  crowned  by  it,  in  consequence  of 
being  immersed  in  and  adherent  to  the  tubular  calyx.  The 
2  styles  are  slender,  longer  than  the  ovary,  and  deciduous, 
for  they  are  not  seen  on  the  full-grown  fruit. 

The  Fruit  is  a  cremocarp  as  in  Osmorhiza,  but  with  sev- 
eral remarkable  differences.  It  is  oval  inclined  to  oblong, 
flattened  on  the  sides.  When  the  carpels  separate,  they  show 
the  forked  carpophore  between  them.  Each  carpel  has  5  con- 
spicuous, equal,  wavy  ribs,  2  of  which  are  marginal,  i.  e.,  on 
the  border  of  the  face  or  commissure.  In  each  interval  be- 
tween the  ribs  is  an  oil  tube — an  oblong  cell  containing  a 
fragrant  oil.  Botanists  call  these  oil-tubes  vittce.  None  are 
found  in  the  fruits  of  Osmorhiza. 


*  Plants  in  which  the  inflorescence  is  arranged  in  a  cyme,  corymb,  &c.,  may  be 
termed  the  "  Social  Flowers."  Small  flowers  thus  packed  closely  together  are  neces- 
sarily more  attractive  to  insects  than  if  they  were  scattered  promiscuously  over  the 
plant.  Besides,  these  groups  of  flowers  are  generally  placed  where  they  are  not  hid- 
den by  the  leaves.  So  that  one  can  but  feel  that  this  floral  arrangement  is  not  an 
accident,  but  designed  for  a  purpose.  Self-fertilization  is  guarded  against  in  these 
masses  of  small  flowers  by  the  stamens  ripening  before  the  pistils.  The  former  shed 
their  pollen  and  wither  before  the  latter  have  developed  sufficiently  to  receive  the 
pollen.  Sir  John  Lubbock  remarks  that  the  honey  in  the  flowers  of  this  order  is 
inaccessible  to  butterflies,  whose  probosces  are  fitted  for  deep-throated  flowers;  but 
it  is  easily  reached  by  other  insects. 


136  GOLDEN    ALEXANDEBS. 

The  Name  in  Latin  is  Carum  aureum.  It  is  associated 
with  Caraway  (Carum  Carvi}  whose  native  country  is  Caria 
in  Asia  Minor  ;  hence  the  name.  The  specific  term,,  aureum, 
means  golden.  Other  plants  called  also  Golden  Alexanders, 
with  yellow  umbels  in  June,  may  perplex  the  student.  One 
such,  0.  cor  datum,  is  smooth  all  over  like  C.  aureum,  but  its 
root-leaves  are  generally  cordate  and  simple,  and  the  stem- 
leaves  never  biternate. 

Classification. —  These  examples  introduce  us  to  the 
great  Order  of  the  UMBELLIFEK^: — the  Umbel-bearing 
Plants,  characterized  as  we  have  seen  by  the  following  7 
traits  : 

Stems  hollow.  Inflorescence  in  umbels. 

Leaves  divided.  Flowers  pentandrous. 

Petioles  sheathing.  Ovary  inferior. 

Fruit  a  crempcarp. 

The  Umbel  worts. —The  270  genera  of  this  Order,  and  probably 
also  the  1500  species,  are  distinguished  by  as  many  varying  forms  of 
the  cremocarp.  Here  the  fruit  is  flattened  on  the  sides ;  there,  as 
in  Parsnip,  on  the  back,  and  in  Coriander  not  flattened  either 
way,  but  globular.  Here  the  ribs  are  angular  ridges;  there  they 
are  winged  ;  in  Carrot  they  are  each  beset  with  a  row  of  bristles. 
The  ribs  vary  in  number,  from  3  to  9  ;  so  also  the  oil-tubes,  being 
none  in  Cicely,  4  in  Carum,  9  in  Carrot,  and  15  or  more  in  Lovage. 
With  a  good  microscope,  the  student  will  find  these  observations 
full  of  interest. 

The  Umbelworts  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone  in 
both  Continents,  and  the  high  mountains  of  the  Tropics.  Many  of  them 
are  adapted  to  special  uses.  As  food  plants,  we  have  the  Carrot,  Pars- 
nip, Celery,*  Parsley,  Chervil.  For  aromatics  and  carminatives,  we 
have  the  fruits  of  Anise,  Caraway,  Coriander,  Dill,  Cummin.  As 


*  The  action  of  light  upon  plants  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  our  Garden  Cel- 
ery. The  stalks  are  blanched  by  heaping  earth  about  them  so  as  to  exclude  the  sun  ; 
but  not  only  is  the  formation  of  the  green  coloring  matter  (chlorophyl)  thus  prevented, 
but  also,  of  the  strong-odored  if  not  poisonous  substance  which  ordinarily  renders 
this  plant  unwholesome. 


ANTE^KAEIA.  137 

drugs,  Assafoetida,*  Opoponax,  Bdellium,  Gum  Galbanum,  and  the 
poisonous  Conium,  Cicuta,  Fools-Parsley,  etc.,  which  all  should  know 
in  order  to  avoid. 

The  Record. — For  tablet  and  fig.  of  Cicuta,  see  Appendix. 
Scientific  Terms. — Commissure.    Vittse. 

XXXV.  THE  MOUSE-EAR  EVERLASTING. 

Description.— These  plants  are  among  the  earliest  and 
oddest  of  the  creations  of  Spring.  On  the  sterile  knolls  of 
old  pastures,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  woods,  you  will 
find  them  already  lifting  their  woolly  heads  when  the  grass 
first  changes  to  green.  Few  plants  are  more  unsightly,  but 
being  the  heralds  of  returning  Spring,  the  earliest  represent- 
atives of  the  grandest  of  all  the  Orders,  and  moreover  every- 
where present,  they  make  an  undeniable  claim  upon  our 
attention. 

Analysis. —  The  ffioot  is  perennial,  and  produces  up- 
right flowering  stems,  together  with  prostrate  runners  or 
stolons  like  the  Strawberry  plant.  All  the  herbage  is  whit- 
ened by  a  silky  wool. 

The  Z/eaves  are  thickish,  smoothish  above  when  old, 
entire ;  the  radical  obovate  or  oval-spatulate  (like  an  apothe- 
cary's spatula,  or  broader),  petiolate ;  the  cauline  much 
smaller,  linear-oblong,  sessile.  On  the  stolons  (runners, 
p.  97),  the  upper  leaves  are  the  larger. 

The  Stems  are  about  a  span  in  height,  and  scape-like  in 
consequence  of  the  diminished  upper  leaves. 

The  Flowers  are  small,  and  collected  in  heads  which  are 
again  assembled  in  clusters  forming  a  dense  terminal  group. 
They  are  dioecious,  that  is,  all  staminate  ( $ )  or  sterile  in 


*  Assafoetida  is  so  much  relished  by  the  Brahmins  of  India  that  they  term  it 
"  food  for  the  gods." 


138 


THE    MOUSE-EAR    EVERLASTING. 


FIG.  XXXV.— Antennaria  plan- 
taginifolia  :  6 ,  the  sterile,  ?  ,  the 
fertile  plant ;  1,  a  single  floret ;  2, 
a  bristle  of  the  pappus ;  3,  a  ?  flo- 
ret ;  4,  a  section  of  a  $  head ;  5, 
achenium  with  its  pappus. 


one  plant,  and  all  pistillate  (?)  or  fertile  in  another.     The 
botanist  should  have  both  kinds  in  hand. 

An  Involucre  consisting  of  many  bracts  or  scales,  sur- 
rounds each  head  of  flowers.  Here  the  scales  are  scarious 
or  dry,  white  (or  brown  at  the  base),  imbricated,  the  outer 


139 

very  woolly,  the  inner  smooth,  obtuse  in  the  sterile  heads, 
acute  in  the  fertile. 

The  minute  flowers,  often  called  florets,  stand  crowded 
together  on  the  receptacle — the  expanded  summit  of  the 
short  peduncle.  Here  the  receptacle  is  naked,  i.  e.,  bears  no 
chaff  among  the  florets.  The  ?  florets  show,  first,  an  ovary 
at  the  base  (inferior)  ;  2d,  a  calyx  (pappus*)  consisting  of 
about  20  fine  white  hairs  crowning  the  ovary  ;  3d,  a  tubular 
corolla  exceedingly  slender,  inclosing,  -ith,  a  style  protrud- 
ing (exserted)  from  its  summit.  The  $  show  a  slender 
abortive  ovary  at  the  base  ;  a  pappus  of  20  club-shaped, 
knobby,  white  bristles  ;  a  tubular  5-toothed  corolla  inclosing 
5  stamens  whose  brown  anthers  are  united  into  a  tube  and 
exserted.  The  style  is  rarely  seen. 

Thus  the  fertile  plants  are  known  at  sight  by  the  longer, 
finer,  whiter  pappus  not  sprinkled  with  the  brown  dots  of 
the  anthers.  The  shorter,  clubby  bristles  of  the  sterile 
pappus  are  curious  objects  under  the  microscope,  but  poorly 
contrived  for  wings. 

The  Fruits  are  each  one-seeded — a  sort  of  achenium. 
When  ripe,  they  quit  the  receptacle,  and,  winged  with  their 
fine  light  pappus,  are  wafted  away  and  scattered.  For  the 
abortive  achenia,  wings  would  be  useless. 

The  Name  of  this  plant  is  Antennaria  plantaginifolia  ; 
the  former  suggested  by  the  resemblance  of  the  singular 
pappus  to  the  antennae  of  an  insect ;  the  latter  by  the  like- 
ness of  the  leaves  to  those  of  the  Plantain. 


*  From  the  Latin  pappus,  an  old  man,  a  grandfather,  alluding  to  the  white  hairs. 
Comparing  this  fruit  with  the  cremocarp  of  Cicely  (p.  131),  it  is  evident  that  the  ovary 
is  inferior,  i.  e.  the  calyx  tube  adheres  to  the  ovary,  and  the  limb  (sepals),  if  any,  will 
seem  to  stand  upon  it,  as  the  corolla  does.  But  owing  to  its  crowded  condition  in  the 
dense  heads,  the  sepals  develop  themselves  in  singular  forms,  usually  split  up  into 
hairs  or  bristles,  sometimes  into  5  scales,  as  in  Ageratum,  sometimes  into  2  teeth,  as 
in  Sunflower,  and  sometimes  wholly  obsolete,  as  in  Mayweed.  Again,  the  top  of  the 
ovary  grows  up  into  a  neck  elevating  the  pappus,  as  in  Milkweed  ;  or  into  a  slender 
pedicel,  as  in  Dandelion. 


140  THE    ROBIN'S    PLANTAIN. 

The  Record. — Find  in  the  Appendix  a  tablet  and  record 
of  Antennaria,  which  will  serve  as  a  model  for  other  plants  of 
this  order. 

Scientific  Terms. — Dioecious.  Exserted.  Fertile.  Florets.  Im- 
bricated. Ovary  Abortive.  Pappus.  Pistillate.  Receptacle.  Receptacle 
naked.  Scales.  Scarious.  Scape-like.  Spatulate.  Staminate.  Sterile. 

XXXVI.  THE  ROBIN'S  PLANTAIN. 

Description. —  The  groves  and  orchards  are  already 
vocal  with  the  song  of  the  Robin  when  the  meadows  and 
copses  are  first  bedecked  with  the  blue  rays  of  Robin's  Plan- 
tain. In  Florida  beginning  to  flower  in  March,  its  bloom 
progresses  northward  to  Virginia  in  April,  to  New  York  in 
May,  and  to  Canada  in  June,  coeval  with  Bulbous  Crowfoot, 
Rue  Anemone,  and  Hood-leaved  Violet. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGION. — Having  collected  an 
ample  supply  of  specimens  both  with  flowers  in  fresh  bloom 
and  others  well  advanced  towards  fruit,  the  student  will 
answer  inquiries  like  the  following  :  What  of  the  xlife  and 
form  of  the  root  ?  The  quality  of  surface  or  the  clothing  of 
the  plant  ?  The  form,  stature,  and  attitude  of  the  stem  ? 
The  position,  arrangement,  margin  and  venation  of  the 
leaves  ?  The  leaves,  as  to  outline,  are  not  uniform.  The 
radical  are  oblong -spatulate  with  the  base  narrowed  toward 
a  petiole  and  a  few  teeth  above.  The  cauline  are  lanceolate- 
oblong,  mostly  entire,  and  with  a  broad-clasping  base. 

THE  FLOWER  REGION. —  The  Inflorescence  is  like 
Antennaria,  but  more  open  and  corymbous  (like  a  corymb, 
or  a  level-topped  cluster).  A  few  heads  terminate  the  stem 
and  branches.  The  first  to  flower  is  the  one  at  the  top  of 
the  stem,  next  that  of  the  highest  branch,  and  so  on  to  the 
lower  or  outer.  Thus  the  general  inflorescence  is  centrifu- 
gal ;  but  regarding  each  head  singly,  centripetal. 


EKIGEROtf. 


141 


FIG.  XXXVI.— Engeron  bellidif  6lium :  1,  a  ray  floret ;  2,  its  style  and  stigmas ;  3,  a  disk 
floret;  4,  its  stamens  ;  5,  its  pistil ;  6,  receptacle  and  involucre  ;  7,  ripe  fruit  and  pappus. 

The  Involucre  consists  of  many  nearly  equal  scales, 
green,  linear,  pointed,  and  all  in  one  row,  not  imbricated  (6). 
The  receptacle  (6)  is  flat,  naked  (no  chaff  among  the  florets). 


142  THE    KOBIK'S    PLANTAIK. 

The  Florets  are  very  many  in  each  head  and  of  two 
kinds.  In  the  circumference  stand  the  florets  of  the  ray, 
surrounding  the  florets  of  the  disk.  The  former  (1)  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  ligulate  corollas  (ligula,  a  strap),  called 
the  ray.  This  form  may  be  understood  by  comparing  it 
with  the  tubular  corollas  of  the  disk  (3).  These  have  5  teeth 
at  the  top,  indicating  that  the  tube  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  5  petals.*  There  are  also  5  (or  at  least  3)  teeth  at  the  tip 
of  the  ligules,  and  other  marks  indicating  5  united  petals, 
not  forming  a  tube,  but  a  strap-shaped  corolla — a  split  tube, 
lengthened  and  turned  to  one  side.  The  rays  in  this  species 
are  of  a  bluish-purple  color,  and  about  50  in  number.  The 
ray  florets  are  pistillate  (  ?  ),  the  disk  florets  perfect  (  $  ), 
and  both  are  fertile.  The  style  in  all  bears  2  manifest 
exserted  stigmas.  In  the  disk,  5  united  anthers  form  a  tube 
around  the  style ;  in  the  ray  no  anthers  appear.  In  the 
figure,  (4)  displays  the  stamen  tube  as  if  unrolled  ;  (5),  the 
style  with  the  2  flattened  obtuse  stigmas  ;  (2),  the  stigmas  of 
the  ray.  The  pappus  is  composed  of  many  white,  scabrous 
(rough)  bristles  encircling  the  corolla  and  crowning  the 
(inferior)  ovary 

The  Fruit  (7),  a  sort  of  achenium,  is  more  properly  a 
cypsvla.  The  2  stigmas  indicate  a  2-carpelled  ovary.  The 
cypsela,  therefore,  although  1-seeded,  is  the  product  of  a 
double  ovary.  All  other  achenia  (e.  g.,  Ranunculus)  come 
from  simple  ovaries. 

The  Name  of  this  plant,  Erigeron  bellidifdlium,  is  sin- 
gularly descriptive.  The  generic  title  signifies  "hoary  in 
Spring"  (er,  spring,  geron,  an  old  man)  ;  and  the  specific, 
"  daisy-leaved  "  (Bellis,  Daisy,  folium,  leaf). 


*  The  term  gamopetalous  (gamos,  union)  is  applied  to  all  flowers  with  united 
petals.  The  corresponding  term  polypetalous  designates  those  having  the  petals 
distinct,  as  in  the  plants  heretofore  described. 


TABAXACTO.  143 

Scientific  Terms. — Corymb.      Corymbous.  Cypsela.     Florets 

of  the  ray.    Florets  of  the  disk.     Gamopetalous.  Ligulate  corolla. 
Polypetalous.    Eays.    Scabrous.    Tubular  corolla. 


XXXVII.  THE  DANDELION. 

Dear  common  flower,  that  growest  beside  the  way, 

Fringing  the  dusty  road  with  harmless  gold, 
Tis  the  Spring1  s  largess  which  she  scatters  now. 

LOWELL. 

Description. — There  are  animals  which  shun  the  savage 
haunts  of  the  wilderness,  and  with  determined  choice  seek 
the  habitations  of  man.  So  there  are  plants,  foreigners 
mostly,  such  as  the  Plantain,  Pigweed,  and  Dandelion,  which 
nourish  only  or  chiefly  around  human  dAvellings.  Early  and 
late,  in  Spring,  Summer  and  Autumn,  the  golden  discs  of 
the  Dandelion  develop  from  the  manipulated  soil  of  the 
gardens,  fields,  and  fence-rows.  Other  plants  we  may  value 
for  their  rarity ;  but  this  delights  us  for  its  very  common- 
ness, and  the  associations  of  childhood  which  linger  about  it.* 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGIOK. — Here  we  have  an  acau- 
lescent  plant — a  plant  with  no  visible  proper  stem.  The 
leaves  and  flower-stalks  rise  directly  from  the  top  of  the 
strong,  axial,  fleshy,  perennial  root.  A  milky  white  juice 
pervades  the  whole  plant,  exuding  from  the  root,  leaves, 
flowers,  wherever  bruised  or  broken.  This  juice  contains 
caoutchouc,  but  no  opium.  The  leaves  differ  in  pattern 
from  any  hitherto  described.  All  are  radical,  and  oblong  in 
their  general  outline,  with  the  margins  cut  into  prominent 
lobes  and  teeth  which  are  inclined  backward — a  form  called 
runcinate  (re-uncinate,  or  hooked  backward). 

*  Besides  the  uses  of  the  Dandelion  for  the  bee,  butterfly,  and  childhood,  and  the 
pleasant  memories  it  brings  to  age,  it  serves  other  purposes.  The  young  leaves  when 
blanched  are  esteemed  in  France  as  an  excellent  salad.  The  green  growing  leaves  are 
used  generally  as  a  pot-herb.  The  root  is  a  valuable  remedial  agent. 


FIG.  XXXVII.—Taraxacum Dens-lednis  :  l,a  floret;  2,  the  stamens  unrolled;  3,  the 
receptacle,  and  involucre  ;  4,  a  fruit  (cypsela) ;  5,  a  fruit  with  its  pappus. 

144 


TAKAXACUM.  145 

THE  FLOWER  REGION. — The  inflorescence  is  also  radical. 
From  the  crown  of  the  root  several  naked,  hollow  scapes 
arise,  each  bearing  an  involucrate  head  of  flowers  analogous 
to,  yet  strikingly  different  from,  those  of  Antennaria  or 
Erigeron.  In  the  former,  the  heads  are  discoid,  being  wholly 
destitute  of  rays  or  ligulate  corollas ;  in  the  latter  radiate, 
having  the  outer  row  of  florets  ligulate.  In  Dandelion  they 
are  radiant — with  all  the  florets  ligulate. 

The  Involucre  is  said  to  be  double,  consisting  of  2  rows 
of  scales,  the  outer  ones  shorter  and  reflexed,  the  inner,  linear 
and  erect.  The  receptacle  (3)  is  quite  naked  of  chaff.* 

The  Florets  are  all  fertile  and  perfect — each  consisting 

(1)  of  an  oblong  ovary  crowned  with  a  yellow,  ligulate  corolla 
and  a  pappus  of  soft  white  bristles.    The  ligule  is  5-toothed, 
indicating  5  united  petals.    The  5  anthers  form  a  tube  inclos- 
ing the  style,  which  divides  at  the  top  in  2  spreading  or  rev- 
olute  stigmas.    The  anther  tube  is  represented  in  the  cut 

(2)  as  if  unrolled,  f 

The  Fruit.  After  flowering,  the  involucre  closes  upon 
the  withering  corollas  while  the  fruit  is  growing.  The  tips 
of  the  ovaries  grow  into  slender  beaks  raising  the  pappus, 
while  the  scape  lengthens,  elevating  the  whole  head.  At 
length,  when  all  is  ripe,  the  involucre  again  opens,  the  pap- 
pus expands  into  an  airy  balloon,  and  soon  the  cypselas 
(4  and  5),  thus  admirably  fledged,  are  borne  away  on  the 
wind  and  scattered  far  and  wide.  But  this  is  not  the  end  of 

*  In  Sunflower,  Coriopsis,  and  other  plants  of  this  Order,  the  receptacle  bears  with 
each  floret  a  bractlet  (called  a  pale  or  chaff).  Hence  "  receptacle  chaffy  "  is  the  coun- 
terpart of  "  receptacle  naked." 

t  In  fair  weather  the  florets  are  expanded  and  very  conspicuous  to  insects.  In  rain 
and  by  night  they  are  closed,  protecting  the  nectar  from  waste.  The  nectar  is  abun- 
dant, rising  high  in  the  tubes  of  the  florets  and  accessible  to  numerous  insects.  Muller 
observed  the  visits  of  93  species.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that  the  stigmas  should 
escape  pollenization  in  this  way  ;  but  to  make  sure  of  it,  they  continue  to  recoil  until 
they  reach  the  pollen  for  themselves.  "  The  brightness  of  its  color,  the  quantity  of 
its  honey,  the  habit  of  closing  in  unfavorable  weather,  and  the  power  of  self-fertili- 
zation, go  far  to  explain  the  great  abundance  of  the  Dandelion.1'— -Sir  J.  Lubbock. 


146  THE    DAtfDELIOS. 

providential  care.  The  cypsela  (4)  is  pointed  and  bearded 
so  that  when  it  alights,  its  pappus  still  moving  to  and  fro, 
it  works  its  way  into  the  ground  and  thus  plants  itself.  * 

The  Name,  Dandelion,  is  a  corruption  of  the  French 
dent-de-lion,  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  its  jagged  leaves 
to  the  teeth  of  a  lion.  The  scientific  name,  Taraxacum 
Dens-leonis  (taraxacum,)  disturbance,  dens-leonis,  lion's  tooth) 
refers  to  this  common  notion,  and  its  medicinal  effect. 

Classification. — This  plant,  with  the  two  foregoing, 
introduces  us  to  the  great  Order  of  the  Asterworts,  called 
COMPOSITE  as  the  flowers  are  apparently  compound.  They 
agree  with  one  another  and  with  the  whole  Order  in  these 
seven  characteristics  : 

1.  Flowers  collected  in  involucrate  heads. 

2.  Calyx  limb  (if  any)  a  dry  pappus  crowning  the  ovary. 
8.  Corolla  of  5  united  petals  (gamopetalous). 

4.  Stamens  5,  united  by  their  anthers  into  a  tube. 

5.  Stigmas  2,  with  their  styles  consolidated  into  one. 

6.  Ovary  inferior,  1-ovuled,  a  cypsela  in  fruit.         ^ 

7.  Seed  with  no  albumen. 

The  Asterworts  embrace  1000  genera  and  9000  species,  growing 
in  all  climates  and  countries,  amounting  to  about  one-tenth  of  the 
Flowering  Plants  of  the  Globe.  Over  600  species  are  natives  of  the 

*  Thus  the  Dandelion  enters  the  great  "  struggle  for  existence  "  with  seeming  ad- 
vantages, but  none  too  many.  Its  rivals  are  a  legion,  each  in  its  own  way  armed  for  the 
strife— a  contest  more  active  than  ever  was  waged  on  any  human  battle-field,  renewed 
every  Spring  time  in  the  bosom  of  the  quiet  woodland  and  peaceful  meadow.  The 
ground  is  densely  packed  with  seeds  which  were  strown  the  previous  Autumn,  or 
have  been  lying  dormant,  abiding  their  time,  perhaps  for  years.  There  is  room  for 
only  one  seed  to  develop  in  a  spot  where  there  are  hundreds  of  candidates.  The  sun- 
shine and  heat  stimulate  them  to  germination,  and  then  begins  the  fierce  struggle  for 
survival— a  contest  that  knows  no  pause  or  cessation  until  the  fittest  have  conquered 
and  the  rest  have  succumbed.  It  is  literally  a  death-struggle.  No  pity  is  shown  for 
the  weak,  no  regard  for  the  beautiful. 

Nowhere  is  this  life-struggle  so  reckless  as  amid  the  exuberance  of  a  tropical 
forest.  "There,"  says  Orton,  "the  dense  dome  of  green  overhead  is  supported  by 
crowded  columns,  often  branchless  for  80  feet.  Individual  struggles  with  individual, 
and  species  with  species,  to  monopolize  the  air,  the  sun,  and  the  soil.  In  their  efforts 
to  spread  their  roots,  some  of  the  weaker  sort,  unable  to  find  a  footing,  climb  a  power- 
ful neighbor  and  let  their  roots  dangle  in  the  air,  while  many  a  full-grown  tree  has 
been  lifted  up,  as  it  were,  in  the  strife,  and  now  stands  on  the  ends  of  its  stilt-like 
roots  so  that  a  man  may  walk  under  the  trunk  between  them." 


GAULTHERIA.  147 

United  States.  Conspicuous  among  them  are  the  autumnal  hosts  of 
blue  and  white  Asters  and  yellow  Goldenrods  (Soliddgo),  the  troops  of 
Sunflowers  (Hdidnthus)  and  the  armies  of  Thistles  (Cnicus).  Our 
Composites  are  nearly  all  herbs  ;  in  Chili,  they  are  mostly  bushes  ;  in 
the  Island  of  St.  Helena,  they  are  trees. 

Compared  with  its  vast  extent,  the  useful  products  of  this  Order 
are  few  and  unimportant.  Lettuce  is  the  herbage  of  Lactuca 
saliva.  Salsify  is  the  root  of  Tragopogon  porrifolius.  Chickory,  used 
with  Coffee,  is  the  roasted  root  of  Cichdrium  Intybus.  Saffron,  a 
yellow  dye,  is  the  dried  flowers  of  Cdrthamus  tinctorius.  Camomile 
(Anthemis  nobilis),  Elecampane  (Intild),  Arnica  (A.  montdnd),  are  pop- 
ular remedies.  The  well-known  Persian  Insect  Powder  is  the  dried 
and  pulverized  heads  of  Chrysanthemum  rbseum.  Wormwood,  used  in 
making  the  French  liquor  absinthe,  is  a  species  of  Artemisia. 

In  the  flower  garden  this  great  Order  is  also  well  represented  by  the 
showy  China  Asters,  Zinnias,  and  Dahlias,  which  sport  into  varieties 
infinite.  The  Feverfue  (Parthenium),  the  Marigolds  (Tagetes)  and 
Coreopsis,  are  old  favorites.  The  Everlastings  or  Immortelles  are 
becoming  common.  Last,  but  not  least,  the  lovely  Chrysdnthema,  in 
purple,  yellow,  and  glowing  white,  when  all  other  leaves  are  falling 
and  other  flowers  are  dead.* 

Scientific  Terms.— Acaulescent.  Achenium  or  Cypsela  beaked. 
Heads  discoid.  Heads  radiant.  Heads  radiate.  Receptacle  chaffy. 
Receptacle  naked.  Runcinate. 

XXXVIII.  THE  CHECKERBERRY. 

Description. — The  many  names  of  this  little  plant,  as 
with  the  Garden  Violet,  is  a  proof  of  its  popularity.  In  dif- 
ferent places  it  is  known  as  Checkerberry,  Boxberry,  Tea- 
berry,  Ivory  Plum,  Partridge-berry,  Wintergreen.  f  The 

*  "And  it  is  told  in  stories  old  that  this  fair  blossom  first 

On  that  blest  morn,  when  Christ  was  born,  into  white  beauty  burst. 
Perhaps — ah  !  well,  we  cannot  tell  if  truly  it  be  so  ; 
T  but  repeat  the  legend  sweet,  and  only  this  I  know — 
That  in  the  prime  of  Christmas-time  the  Christ's  sweet  flowers  blow." 
t  We  adopt  the  first-mentioned  name,  for  so  it  was  known  to  onr  childhood.    But 
since  these  appellations  are  merely  local,  and  some  of  them  are  equally  applied  to 
other  plants,  the  necessity  of  an  invariable  scientific  name  is  manifest. 


148 


THE    CHECKERBEBKY. 


Checkerberry  grows  in  old  woods  and  pastures,  particularly 
where  Pines  and  Hemlocks  have  abounded,  always  avoiding 
alluvial  or  limestone  soil.  In  Winter  and  early  Spring,  it 
appears  arrayed  in  the  dark  evergreen  leaves  and  bright  red 
berries  of  the  preceding  year.  In  April  and  May,  it  puts 
forth  new  leaves  which  are  of  a  livelier  green,  and  tender, 


FIG.  XXXVUL— Gaultheria  procumbens  : 
2,  a  flower,  natural  size  ;  3,  a  fruit ;  4,  ver- 
tical section  of  the  fruit;  5,  a  2-horned 
anther  of  a  Vaccinium  (Blueberry) ;  6,  a 
stamen  of  Arctostaphylus  (Bearberry)  ;  7,  a 
2-awned  stamen  of  a  Vaccinium  ;  8,  Pyrola 
secunda  ;  9,  a  flower,  natural  size  ;  10,  a 
stamen  showing  the  terminal  tubes  and 
pores  ;  11,  cross-section  of  the  5-celled, 
many-seeded  capsule. 


with  their  well-known  spicy  fragrance  and  taste.  In  May, 
June,  or  July,  according  to  the  locality,  you  will  find  it  in 
flower,  and  in  October  its  fruit  will  again  be  perfected. 

Analysis.— THE  LEAF  BEGHXBT.— With  complete  speci- 
mens in  hand,  the  learner  will  carefully  distinguish  between 
root  and  stem.  Is  it  Q  or  2f  ?  The  stem  proper,  or  the 

main  stem,  is  a  prostrate  creeper  generally  concealed.     At 

• 


GAULTHEKIA.  149 

intervals  it  sends  up  branches  2'  or  3'  high,  which  the  learner 
at  first  sight  might  take  for  distinct,  independent  stems. 
The  leaves — define  their  venation,  form  of  outline,  quali- 
ties of  surface,  texture,  taste,  &c. 

THE  FLOWER  REGION. — The  Flowers  present  us  with  a 
new  pattern.  The  white  wax-like  corolla  is  a  short  tube, 
5-toothed  and  slightly  contracted  at  the  mouth — a  form 
called  urceolate  (urn-shaped).  Note  the  position,  attitude, 
and  length  of  the  flowers  and  their  peduncles.  Compare  the 
calyx  with  the  corolla ;  note  their  difference  in  life,  form, 
size,  and  fail  not  to  observe  the  2  bractlets  subtending  all. 
Note  the  number  of  the  stamens,  and  the  form  of  the  anther. 
Each  of  its  2  cells  bears  an  awn  at  its  tip,  and  a  terminal 
pore  for  the  discharge  of  its  pollen. 

The  ovary — is  it  superior  ?  How  many  cells  has  it  ?  How 
many  ovules  in  each  cell  ?  How  many  styles  ?  The  micro- 
scope will  reveal  all  this. 

The  fruit.  If  the  pupil  has  been  fortunate  in  securing 
fruit,  relic  of  the  former  year,  new  surprises  await  him  in  its 
analysis.  As  a  whole  it  is  globular.  At  the  top  appears  a 
little  globe  within  a  globe,  surrounded  by  5  large  teeth.  Now 
with  a  sharp  blade  divide  the  fruit  perpendicularly  and  study 
the  section.  There  is  a  5-celled  capsule  enveloped  in  (but 
free  from)  the  enlarged  fleshy  calyx  which  contains  the  pulpy 
portion  of  the  berry. 

The  Name. — This  plant  was  first  noticed  in  Canada  by 
Dr.  Gaulthier  of  Quebec.  In  his  honor  it  received  the  generic 
name  GauUheria,  conferred  by  Prof.  Kalm,  of  Sweden.  Its 
specific  name,  G.  procumbens,  alludes  to  its  habit  of  growth. 
Another  species,  G.  Shallon,  a  bush  with  similar  fruit,  but 
Uack,  and  the  delight  of  the  bears,  grows  in  Oregon,  ,, 

Scientific  Terms. — Urceolate  corolla. 


150 


THE    PYKOLAS. 


XXXIX.  THE  PYROLAS. 

Description. — There  are  five  or  six  species  of  these  ele- 
gant plants  growing  in  the  woods  of  the  Northern  States, 
Canada,  and  southward  along  the  mountains.  One  or  all 
of  them  may  fall  in  the  way  of  the  col- 
lector, the  flowers  in  June  or  July,  the 
fruit  in  September.  The  dry  stalks  of 
the  last  season  with  empty  pods  (better 
than  none)  should  be  collected  with  the 
flowers. 
Analysis. — We  now  adopt  a  new 


FIG.  XXXIX.— Pyrola  rotundifdlia  :  2,  section  of  a  flower  bud  showing  the  anthers 
inverted  ;  3,  section  of  a  flower  ;  4,  5,  stamens — anthers  erect. 

method  of  analysis.  We  direct  attention,  1st,  to  such  char- 
acters as  apply  equally  to  all  the  species  of  a  genus,  i.  e., 
the  generic  characters.  These  are  mainly  but  not  entirely 


PYROLA.  151 

found  in  the  flowers  and  fruit ;  2d,  to  those  which  apply  to 
one  species  only  and  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  all  the  other 
members  of  the  genus.  They  are  taken  from  any  part,  but 
chiefly  from  the  leaf  region. 

1.  GENERIC    CHARACTERS.  —  The    Pyrolas  are  smooth, 
nearly  acaulescent,  perennial  herbs.    Both  roots  and  stem,  are 
mostly  subterranean.     The  former  are  brown  fibers  spring- 
ing here  and  there  from  the  joints  of  the  stem.     An  under- 
ground shoot  or  runner  arising  from  the  base  of  the  last 
year's  plant,  becomes  the  stem   of  this  year's  plant,  and 
so  on. 

The  Z/eaves  are  entire,  petiolate,  and  nearly  radical. 

The  Inflorescence  is  a  scape  with  a  few  bracts,  and  a 
simple  raceme. 

The  Flowers  are  complete,  5-parted,  symmetrical,  one- 
colored,  nodding.  The  sepals  are  5,  united  at  the  base,  per- 
sistent. The  petals  are  5,  larger,  concave,  converging  (not 
wide-spread),  scarcely  united  at  the  base,  deciduous.  The  10 
stamens  are  peculiar  in  form  and  behavior.  The  large  ob- 
long anthers  (4,  5)  are  attached  to  the  top  of  the  filament 
near  their  own  apex,  where  they  open  by  2  (or  4)  pores.  In 
the  bud  (2)  they  are  seen  inverted,  but  become  erect  with 
their  pores  upward  as  the  flower  expands.  A  vertical  sec- 
tion (3)  displays  the  structure  and  arrangement  of  the  floral 
organs. 

The  Style  is  one,  compounded  of  5  united,  with  5  stigmas 
at  the  top.  The  superior  ovary  becomes  in  fruit  a  globous- 
depressed,  5-lobed,  5-celled  capsule,  opening  upward  from 
the  bottom  by  5  valves.  The  seeds  are  innumerable  and  very 
minute. 

2.  SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS. — We  have  the  portrait  of  a 
common  species,  and  assume  that  the  learner  has  specimens 
before  him.     The  few  leaves  are  quite  radical,  thick  and 


152  PRINCE'S  PINE. 

shining,  orbicular  (round)  or  round-ovate,  shorter  than  their 
dilated  petioles.  The  scape  is  6-12'  high,  6-12-flowered, 
bracted.  The  calyx  lobes  ovate  ;  the  petals  round-obovate, 
nearly  white.  Style  clavate,  twice  bent  downward,  longer 
than  the  petals  which  are  thrice  longer  than  the  sepals. 

The  Name,  in  Latin  as  in  English,  is  Pyrola,  a  diminu- 
tive of  Pyrus,  the  Pear-tree  ;  because  of  the  resemblance  of 
the  leaves,  whence  it  is  also  called,  Pear  Wintergreen.  The 
species  here  figured  and  described  is  P.  rotundifolia,  the 
round-leaved. 

Another  species,  P.  elliptica,  has  elliptical  and  oval  leaves, 
thinner  in  texture,  scape  bractless,  and  sepals  very  short. 
The  learner  may  also  have  found  P.  secunda  (Fig.  XXXVIII, 
8),  which  has  the  flowers  of  its  raceme  all  turned  one  side,  a 
straight  style,  serrulate  leaves  not  all  radical,  and  other  dif- 
ferences which  are  easily  noted.* 

Scientific  Terms. — Clavate.  Converging  petals.  Generic  char- 
acters. Orbicular.  Specific  characters.  Vertical  section.  t 

XL.  PRINCE'S  PINE. 

Description. — In  the  same  woodlands  where  the  Pyrolas 
grow,  or  in  the  drier  portions  of  them,  you  may  also  detect 
the  Prince's  Pine,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  the  Indian  tongue, 
Pipsissewa.  The  affinities  of  this  comely  plant  with  the 


*  In  the  States  E.  of  the  Mississippi  River,  6  species  of  Pyrola  are  known,  and  ana- 
lytically distinguished  in  Wood's  Object  Lessons  as  follows  : 
§  Stamens  ascending,  style  declined  and  curved.,  .a. 
§  Stamens  and  style  straight  and  erect. .  .Nos.  5,  6. 

a  Leaves  thick  and  shining.    Flowers  white  or  rose-colored,  Nos.  1,  2. 

a  Leaves  green,  not  shining.    Flowers  greenish- white,  Nos.  3,  4. 

1  P.  rotundifolia.     Round-leaved  P.    Leaves  orbicular.    Mostly  white  petals. 

2  P.  asarifolia.     Heart-leaved  P.    Leaves  round-cordate.     Rose-colored  petals. 

3  P.  elliptica.    Pear-leaved  P.    Leaves  large,  thin,  elliptical.    Scape  bractless. 

4  P.  chlorantha.    Green-fl.  P.    Leaves  small,  thick,  roundish,  shorter  than  petioles. 

5  P.  secunda.     One-sided  P.    Eaceme  with  the  green-white  flowers  all  on  one  side. 

6  P.  minor.    Lesser  P.    Raceme  spike-form,  with  small,  globular,  white  flowers. 


CHIMAPHILA. 


153 


FIG.  XL.— Chimaphila  umbellate  :  1,  section  of  a  flower  ;  2,  3,  stamens  ;  4,  cross- 
section  of  ovary  ;  6,  the  ovary  ;  5,  capsule  opening  by  chinks  above. 


154 


PRINCE'S  PINE. 


Pyrolas  is  evident  at  sight.  Its  study  will  therefore  be  a 
comparative  analysis,  in  which  both  its  resemblances  and 
differences  will  appear. 

Analysis, —  1.  GENERIC  CHAR- 
ACTERS.— The  Prince's  Pines  are 
small,  suffruticous  (sub,  under,  or 
partly,  frutex,  a  shrub  ;  i.  e.,  half- 
shrubby)  plants.  Their  stems  orig- 
inate from  long  subterranean  run- 
ners like  the  Pyrolas,  with  leaves 
evergreen,  thick,  shining,  verticil- 
late  (whorled)  or  scattered  in  the 
midst  of  the  stem.  The  inflores- 
cence is  a  terminal  umbel  on  a  long 
peduncle,  flesh-colored,  5-parted, 
with  Flowers.  The  Calyx  is  5-lobed, 
and  the  Corolla  of  5  concave,  or- 
bicular, wide-spread  petals.  There 
are  ten  2-horned  anthers,  opening 
by  2  terminal  pores  ;  filaments  (2,  3) 
broad  in  the  middle  ;  style  (6)  very 
short ;  stigma  broad,  disk-form. 
The  capsule  (5,  4)  is  depressed, 
globular,  5-celled,  5-valved,  opening  from  the  top. 

2.  SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS. — The  specimens  in  hand  may 
be  of  the  kind  commonly  known  at  the  North  as  Pipsissewa 
(see  Fig.  XL)  and  esteemed  for  its  tonic  and  diuretic  proper- 
ties. This  plant  stands  6-10'  high  on  a  base  curving  up- 
ward. The  leaves  are  in  2  or  3  whorls  of  3s  and  5s, 
oblanceolate,  narrowed  to  the  base,  sharply  serrate,  uni- 
formly dark-green.  The  peduncle  is  2-4',  and  sustains  an 
umbel  of  4-7  flowers. 

The  Name,  Ohimdphila  (winter-loving)  umbelldta  (um- 


7,  Chimaphila  maculata. 


KALMIA.  155 

bellate)  is  appropriate  to  the  habit  of  Prince's  Pine,  it 
being  an  umbel-bearing  evergreen.  A  second  species — C. 
maculata  (Spotted  Chimaphila,  Fig.  XL,  7)  grows  in  similar 
localities,  especially  southward.  It  is  known  by  the  white 
variegations  of  the  lanceolate,  remotely  serrate  leaves.  Sooner 
or  later  the  diligent  collector  is  sure  to  find  it  and  record  its 
analysis. 

XLI.  THE  KALMIAS,  OR  AMERICAN  LAURELS. 

Description. — In  the  woods  of  the  Atlantic  States  from 
Maine  to  Georgia  and  westward  to  Wisconsin  and  Kentucky, 
grow  the  American  Laurels,  adorned  in  the  months  of  May 
and  June  in  their  magnificent  bloom.  Five  species  are 
known  to  the  botanist,  flowering  simultaneously,  and  there- 
fore, possibly,  all  or  several  in  the  box  of  the  collector.  Let 
us  first  notice  their  points  of  agreement,  that  is,  their — 

1.  GEHEKIC  CHABACTEKS.     These  are  evergreen  shrubs, 
with   coriaceous,  entire  leaves,  with   raceme-like   corymbs 
(level-topped  clusters)  of   showy  white  or  red  flowers,  all 
5-parted,  gamopetalous  and  complete.    The  5  sepals  cohere 
only  at  base,  the  5  petals  are  united  quite  to  the  top  into  a 
saucer-shaped,  5-lobed  corolla  larger  than  the  calyx,  having 
10  pits  or  sacks  in  which  the  10  anthers  are  lodged.     The 
filaments  are  long,  slender,  elastic  and  recurved.     Style  1, 
slender.     Fruit  a  globular  capsule,  5-celled,  oo  -seeded. 

The  Name. — Plants  possessing  these  attributes  consti- 
tute a  genus  named  Kdlmia,  in  honor  of  Kalm,  a  Swedish 
botanist  who  traveled  in  America  about  1750. 

2.  SPECIFIC  CHAEACTERS  of  the  Broad-leaved  Kalmia  (K. 
latifdUa),  often  called  the  Calico  Bush.     It  is  a  shrub  with 
crooked  stems  and  branches,  5-15  feet  high,  with  leaves 
mostly  alternate,  smooth,  bright  green  on  both  sides,  ellip- 


156 


THE    KALMIAS. 


FIG.  XLL— Kalmialatifdlia:  c,  a  flower  natural  size;  b,  a  growing  ovary,  with  its  style. 

tical,  acute  at  each  end,  supported  on  short  petioles.  Its 
flowers  are  in  large  terminal  corymbs,  viscid-pubescent, 
white  varying  to  rose-color. 

The  other  species  are  shrublets  1-3  feet  in  height.     The 


KALMIA.  157 

learner  will  recognize  their  generic  characters  in  the  sketch 
already  given,  and  write  in  his  Plant  Record  the  distinguish- 
ing specific  characters  of  each  as  he  finds  them.  Their 
names  are  as  follows  : 

K.  angustifolia,  the  narrow-leaved,  called  Sheep-poison,  with  oppo- 
site leaves  and  lateral  umbels. 

K.  cuneidta,  the  wedge-shaped-leaved,  growing  South. 
K.  glauca,  the  glaucous  or  sea-green  ;  with  2-edged  twigs. 
K.  hirsiita,  the  hairy. ;  with  very  small  leaves.     South. 

(Pollenization .  The  curious  action  of  the  stamens  in 
these  plants  is  worthy  of  special  attention.  When  the  flower 
first  opens,  the  stamens  are  confined  with  their  anthers  in  as 
many  little  pockets  of  the  corolla,  and  consequently  the  elas- 
tic filaments  bend  backward  away  from  the  style,  which  stands 
erect  in  their  midst.  The  anther  containing  the  pollen  grains 
has,  like  the  Pyrolas,  2  porous  openings  at  the  top.  A  i ouch 
or  sudden  jar  will  liberate  the  anthers,  when  they  instantly 
rebound  against  the  style,  discharging  their  pollen  toward 
the  stigma.* 

Classification. — The  genus  Kalmia,  with  the  three  pre- 

'  ceding,  represent  the  large  and  interesting  Order  of  the 

Heathworts,  or  ERICACE^E.J    They  are  not  homogeneous,  like 

*  It  has  been  observed  that  the  stamens  do  not  spontaneously  free  themselves,  but 
await  some  external  force,  as  a  gust  of  wind,  a  falling  twig,  or  rain-drop.  But  the 
special  agent  in  this  service  is  the  bee  in  quest  of  honey.  The  rustling  of  its  wings,  the 
thrusting  its  proboscis  kito  the  cavity  at  the  base  of  the  stamens  where  the  nectar  is 
secreted,  sets  them  free.  In  this  case  the  pollen  shot  from  the  rebounding  stamens 
will  be  discharged  upon  the  body  of  the  insect,  and  thus  carried  to  the  stigma  of  the 
next  flower  which  it  may  visit. 

The  thoughtful  student  will  here  inquire,  "  Why  must  the  pollen  be  lodged  upon 
the  stigma  at  all?  "—a  question  which  we  are  preparing  to  answer. 

t  The  Order  takes  its  name  from  its  principal  genus,  Erica,  the  Heaths  or  Heath- 
ers, a  genus  of  not  fewer  than  400  species  of  delicate  evergreen  shrubs,  with  small 
narrow  leaves  and  4-parted  gamopetalous  flowers,  natives  of  Europe  and  S.  Africa. 
In  Scotland,  the  luxuriant  Heather  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  landscape.  It  covers 
wide  tracts  of  country  so  closely  as  to  prevent  all  other  vegetation,  and  often  grows 
high  enough  to  hide  a  man  standing  erect.  Different  species  are  the  badges  of  different 
families,  and  a  plant  that  is  so  serviceable  is  well  worthy  of  being  a  Highland  badge. 
Many  a  mountaineer  sleeps  on  a  couch  of  Heather  boughs  ;  makes  his  cabin  of 
Heather  and  a  mortar  of  straw  and  earth  ;  thatches  his  roof  with  Heather,  which 
"he  binds  down  with  a  rope  of  twisted  Heather ;  and  burns  for  his  only  fuel  the 


158  THE    PITCHER    PLAKT. 

the  Composite,  yet  nearly  all  the  genera  agree  in  the  follow- 
ing seven  characters. 

Leaves  simple,  without  stipules. 

Flowers  perfect,  complete,  regular. 

Petals  4,  5,  rarely  more,  united  or  not. 

Stamens  as  many  or  twice  as  many,  free  and  distinct. 

Anthers  2-celled,  opening  by  2  terminal  pores. 

Style  1  with  a  4-10-celled  ovary. 

Embryo  small,  in  fleshy  albumen. 

The  Heathworts  comprehend  66  genera,  1086  species,  chiefly 
natives  of  S.  Africa,  where  they  cover  vast  tracts  of  country,  and 
America,  both  N.  and  S.  Some  of  them  are  the  most  beautiful  of 
plants,  as  the  Azalias,  Rhododendrons,  and  Heaths  (Erica). 

Our  Blueberries,  so  delicious  and  healthful,  are  the  fruit  of  the 
various  species  of  Vacciniam.  Our  Whortleberries  or  Huckleberries, 
of  Gaylussdcia  (dedicated  to  the  French  chemist,  Gray  Lussac}.  Our 
Cranberries,  of  Oxycoccus. 

The  Oil  of  Wintergreen  is  distilled  from  the  young  leaves  of  Gaul- 
theria  procumbens.  The  diuretic  medicine,  Uva-ursi,  is  the  leaves  of 
Arctostdphylus  Uva-ursi.  The  exquisitely  fragrant  Mayflower,  or 
Trailing  Arbutus,  is  Epigea  repens. 


XLII.   THE   PITCHER   PLANT. 

Description. — In  peat  bogs  and  fresh  marshes  through- 
out the  country,  the  Pitcher  Plant  may  be  sought.  It  is 
everywhere  an  object  of  curiosity  and  wonder.  Eight  or 
ten  different  forms  occur,  but  the  flowers  in  all  are  exactly 
similar,  except  perhaps  in  color.  The  species  most  generally 
accessible  is  delineated  in  Fig.  XLII. 

Analysis. — GENERIC  CHARACTERS. — The  habit  of  these 
plants  is  acaulescent,  with  perennial  fibrous  roots,  leaves 

Heather-peat.  The  Heather  sprays  and  blossoms  are  eaten  by  grouse  and  by  sheep 
in  a  time  of  scarcity;  while  the  "Heather-bell,  with  her  purple  bloom,"  is  a  boon 
to  bees. 


159 


PIG.  XLIL— 1,  Sarrac6nia  purpiirea. 


hollow  and  containing  water. 
The  flowers,  one  or  more,  5- 
parted,  perfect  and  complete, 
are  large,  solitary,  mounted  and 
nodding  on  a  naked  scape. 

The  calyx  consists  of  5  ovate, 
spreading,  colored  sepals  subtended  by  3  bractlets.  The 
corolla  is  of  5  obovate,  incurved  petals  covering  the  broad 
style,  and  the  many  hypogynous  stamens. 

The  ovary  is  glabrous,  5-carpelled,  5-celled ;  the  style 
short,  expanding  at  the  top  into  a  broad  umbrella-shaped  or 
peltate  (i.  e.,  shield-shaped)  membrane,  bearing  the  5  stigmas 
in  the  notches  of  the  5  rhombic  lobes.  The  matured  fruit  is 
a  capsule  with  5  cells  opening  by  5  valves,  having  the  pla- 
centae in  the  axis,  or  inner  angle  of  the  cells.  The  seeds  are 
numerous,  anatropous,  with  a  small  embryo  in  much  albumen. 


160 


THE    PITCHER    PLANT. 


2,  a  flower  seen  be- 
neath; 3,  a  flower  seen 
above  ;  4,  the  stamens 
and  pistil  ;  5,  Sarra- 
cenia  psittacina ;  6, 
P.  Drummdndii,  leaves 
only. 


SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS.—  We  have  before  us  (Fig.  XLII, 
1)  the  only  northern  species,  distinguished  from  the  others 
by  the  leaves  alone.  These  are  in  the  form  of  a  pitcher,  6-9' 

long,  broadest  near  the  mid- 
dle, as  a  pitcher  should  be, 
ascending,  incurved,  open, 
bearing  a  broad  wing  along 
the  whole  length  on  the  inner 
side,  and  at  the  toj),  an  erect 
cordate,  hood-like  blade.  The 
hood  and  much  of  the  tube 
below  is  beset  within  by  stiff, 
sharp,  reversed  bristles.  The 
capacity  is  about  half  a  wine- 
glass, and  the  pitcher  is  generally  filled  with  water  containing 
drowned  insects.  The  flowers  are  deep  brownish  purple,  2-3' 
broad,  on  a  scape  about  1  foot  high. 

The  Name  of  this  genus  is  Sarractnia,  conferred  in  honor 
of  Dr.  Sarrazen  of  Quebec,  who  first  sent  it  to  Europe  in  1640. 
The  specific  name,  purpurea,  is  unfortunate ;  for  its  flowers 
are  sometimes  yellow,  and  other  species  have  purple  flowers. 
The  Order  SARRACENIACE^,  the  Pitcher  Plants,  includes 
3  genera,  viz.,  Sarracenia,  Heliamphora  of  Guiana,  and  Dar- 
lingtonia  of  California.  All  the  species  (9  or  10)  are  dis- 


7,  Dionfea  muscipula,  or  Venus's  Fly- 
trap :    Leaves  only. 


DODECATHEOH.  161 

tinguished  for  having  ascidia,  that  is,  leaves  which  hold 
water  like  pitchers,  and  are  probably  alike  carnivorous. 

CARHIVOKOUS  PLANTS. — One  of  the  most  wonderful 
results  of  recent  botanical  investigation  is  to  show  that 
certain  plants  are  expressly  contrived  to  entrap  and  digest 
insects,  and  are  therefore  carnivorous  in  habit.  In  Sarra- 
cenia  the  glistening  water  at  the  bottom  of  the  pitchers  and 
the  sweet  secretion  on  the  leaf  are  fitted  to  entice  inquisi- 
tive flies,  etc.,  to  alight.  Then,  the  reversed  bristles  facili- 
tate their  entrance,  but  forbid  their  return.  Finally,  the 
inner  surface  of  the  tube  secretes  a  fluid  capable  of  digest- 
ing the  animal  matter  and  probably  also  of  assimilating  it 
for  the  growth  of  the  plant.* 


XLIII.  THE  AMERICAN  COWSLIP. 

Description. — This  notable  plant  adorns  our  woods  and 
prairies,  in  May  and  June,  from  Pennsylvania  westward ; 
but  at  the  approach  of  the  ploughman  it  flees  to  the  wilder- 
ness unless  enticed  by  the  gentler  arts  of  the  gardener.  Its 
numerous  names,  as  Pride-of-Ohio,  Shooting-Star,  Dodeca- 
theon,  are  its  titles  of  nobility ;  and  its  aspect,  acaulescent 
like  Pyrola  and  Sarracenia,  with  a  radical  crown  of  leaves 


*  Among  the  other  carnivorous  plants  are  Venus's  Fly  Trap  (Dioncea  musnpula^ 
native  of  N.  Carolina),  the  Sundew  (Drosera),  and  the  East  Indian  Pitcher  Plant 
(Nepenthes).  In  the  first  named  (Fig.  XLII,  7)  there  is  a  curious  trap  at  the  end  of 
the  leaf.  Along  the  edges  are  rows  of  bristles  which  have  been  aptly  compared  to 
the  eye-lashes.  On  each  side  within  are  three  more  exceedingly  sensitive  hairs.  If 
one  of  these  be  touched  by  an  insect  crawling  over  the  leaf,  the  two  sides  will 
instantly  shut  upon  the  hapless  prisoner,  the  fringe  on  the  edge  interlacing  like  the 
fingers  of  the  two  clasped  hands.  The  fluid  secreted  by  the  leaf  is  at  once  forced 
out,  apparently  to  aid  in  the  digestion  of  the  animal  food  thus  ingeniously  caught. 
This  natural  trap  may  be  sprung  by  dropping  into  it  a  piece  of  meat.  In  the  Dar- 
lingtonia  there  is  a  bait— an  appendage  smeared  on  the  inside  with  honey— hanging 
at  the  entrance  of  the  tube,  enticing  insects  to  go  within. 


162 


THE    AMERICAN    COWSLIP. 


and  a  naked  columnar  scape  supporting  an  involucrate  um- 
bel, is  the  ideal  of  floral  grace  and  beauty. 

The  fashion  of  the  Flowers  is  like  that  of  the  garden 
Cyclamen,  otherwise  unique,  suggesting  the  thought  of  a 
shooting  star  or  a  bird  on  the  wing.  This  effect  is  due  to  the 
white  petals  so  sharply  re- 
flexed,  while  the  stamens  and 
style  project  forward  in  the 
form  of  a  parti-colored  beak 
or  an  arrow-head.* 

Analysis.  —  THE  LEAF 
EEGION. — The  root  is  a  dense 


FIQ.  XLIII.— Dodecatheon  Mefidia:  2,  a  flower  with  pistil  undeveloped;  3,  a  flower, 
full  size,  with  the  pistil ;  4,  dissection,  showing  the  free-central  placenta,  &c. ;  5,  the 
pyxis  of  Anagallis  ;  6,  the  plan  of  the  flower. 

mass  of  branching  fibers  issuing  from  the  perennial  crown, 
and  striking  deep  into  the  soil.  The  stem  (the  crown 
already  mentioned)  is  wholly  subterranean,  and  destitute  of 

*  In  the  Dodecatheon  we  find  two  types  of  flower  (dimorphism).  In  some  the  pis- 
til is  long  and  flush  with  the  throat  of  the  corolla,  and  the  stamens  are  fixed  half  way 
down  the  sides  ;  in  others,  the  pistil  is  short  and  the  stamens  are  attached  to  the  throat 
of  the  corolla.  One  form  has  thus  the  pistil  where  the  other  has  the  stamens.  This 
was  long  thought  to  be  a  mere  freak  of  nature  ;  but  it  is  now  known  to  be  another 


DODECATHEOtf.  163 

any  definite  form.  The  leaves,  sheathing  the  scape  at  the 
base  and  springing  with  it  from  the  crown  (radical),  are 
oblong,  obtuse,  nearly  entire,  and  smooth.  The  inflores- 
cence is  an  umbel. 

THE  FLOWER  EEGION. — The  Flowers  are  5-parted  (^), 
complete,  perfect,  regular,  symmetrical,  gamopetalous  (al- 
though the  petals  are  almost  separate).  What  of  the  calyx  ? 
What  of  the  stamens  ?  Here  is  an  arrangement  like  that  in 
Claytonia  (p.  41).  The  5  stamens  stand  opposite  to  (oppos- 
ing] the  5  petals.  The  slender  anthers  are  coninvent  in  a 
slender  cone  inclosing  the  thread-like  style.  The  ovary  and 
fruit  are  superior,  1-celled.  The  many  ( oo )  seeds  are 
affixed  to  a  central  erect  column— that  is,  to  a  free  central 
placenta.  Is  the  ovary  simple  or  compound  ?  Probably 
compounded  of  5  carpels,  since  the  other  organs  are  in  5s. 
But  the  fusion  is  so  intimate  as  to  leave  no  trace  of  the 
seams,  lobes,  or  cells  ;  nor  does  the  style  or  stigma  give  any 
indications.  This  is  extraordinary.  Compare  the  triple 
pistil  and  capsule  of  Erythronium  (p.  32). 

The  Name,  Dodecdtheon  (dodeka,  twelve,  -theoi,  gods) 
was  conferred  by  Linnaeus  as  if  the  flowers  (about  12  in 
number)  were  so  many  little  divinities — a  poetic  fancy  not 
unworthy  of  the  great  naturalist.  D.  Meddia,  the  specific 
name  given  by  Catesby,  in  honor  of  Dr.  Mead,  the  dis- 
coverer, was  originally  intended  for  the  genus. 

Scientific   Terms,— Free  central  placenta.    Opposing  stamens. 


contrivance  to  secure  crossing.  An  insect  lighting  upon  a  short-styled  flower  would 
naturally  dust,  its  head  with  pollen  from  the  stamens  clustered  about  the  mouth  of  the 
tuhe  ;  on  going  to  a  long-styled  flower,  its  head,  covered  with-  pollen,  would  at  once 
come  in  contact  with  the  sticky  pistil  at  the  opening  of  the  throat ;  and  rice  versa, 
pollen  would  in  the  same  way  be  carried  from  a  long-styled  flower  to  fertilize  a  short- 
styled  one.— It  is  curious  to  note  also  how  the  flower  is,  so  to  speak,  "  made  the  most 
of  "  in  the  floral  competition  for  insect  services  by  a  simple  contrivance.  The  corolla 
being  deeply  cleft  and  each  petal  bent  backward,  brings  every  part  of  the  surface  into 
conspicuous  notice, 


164 


CHICK    W1NTERGKEEN. 


XLIV.  CHICK  WINTERGREEN. 

Description. — Dodecatheon  is  often  cultivated  in  the 
gardens  of  New  England  and  New  York,  but  is  never  native 
in  those  States.  Its  place  is  there  occupied  by  the  pretty 


FIG.  XLIV.— Trientalis  Americana  :  1,  a  flower ;  2,  the  seeds  heaped  on  the  free 
central  placenta, 


LYSIMACHIA.  165 

Chick  Wintergreen  or  Star-flower,  growing  in  the  cool,  damp 
woods.  No  flower  in  May  and  June  is  more  lovingly  greeted. 

Analysis. — The  7-fold  division  of  the  floral  organs  is 
the  most  striking  feature  of  this  flower.  It  is  seen  in  the 
petals,  sepals,  stamens,  and  even  in  the  leaves,  and  probably 
it  exists  also  in  the  pistil  and  fruit.  The  7  white,  slightly 
gamopetalous,  wide-spread  petals,  form  a  wheel-  or  star- 
shaped  corolla,  and  the  7  stamens  stand  opposing  them. 
The  ovary  as  well  as  the  style  is  one,  and  in  fruit  becomes  a 
1-celled  capsule  with  about  7  seeds  on  a  free  central  placenta. 

The  Name,  Trientdlis  (triens,  the  third  part  of  a  foot) 
Americana,  alludes  both  to  the  height  of  the  plant  and  to 
its  native  country.* 


XLV.  THE  LOOSESTRIFES. 

Description. — There  are  many  kinds  of  Loosestrife  scat- 
tered over  the  country,  blooming  in  June  and  later.  Some 
choose  a  gravelly  soil,  in  the  borders  of  woods  and  thickets. 
An  English  writer  says,  "  growing  in  damp  woods,  hanging 
down  the  sides  of  mossy  slopes,  its  branches  trailing  a  foot 
or  more  long,  well  clad  with  roundish,  shining,  deep-green 
leaves,  and  bearing  in  June  and  July  handsome  yellow 
flowers  ; "  but  here  they  are  of tener  found  in  low  meadows 
and  miry  swamps.  One  of  them,  the  Moneywort,  alluded  to 
above,  is  cultivated  and  runs  wild  in  our  gardens. 

GEKEKIC  CHAEACTER. — All  the  Loosestrifes  are  peren- 
nial herbs,  with  opposite  or  whorled  (verticillate)  leaves,  and 
complete,  regular,  symmetrical,  yellow,  more  or  less  gamo- 
petalous flowers,  generally  5,  rarely  6  or  7-parted.  The  co- 
rolla is  somewhat  wheel-shaped,  the  stamens  as  many  as,  and 

*  We  rarely  find  this  plant  varying  with  its  flowers  8-parted.  In  Oregon  a  variety 
grows  one-third  larger,  with  flowers  always  8-parted  and  rose-colored. 


166 


THE    LOOSESTRIFES. 


PIG.  XLV.— Lysimachia  quadrifcilia  :  2,  a  flower ;  3,  a  capsule  opening ;  4, 
5,  plan  of  the  flower. 


LYSIMACHIA.  167 

opposing  the  petals,  generally  monadelphous  (united  at  the 
base).*  The  ovary  is  evidently  compounded  of  5  carpels, 
for  in  fruit  it  opens  at  the  top  by  5  valves,  or  10  half-valves. 
The  seeds  are  several  or  many,  attached  to  a  free  central 
placenta  in  the  one-celled  capsule. 

The  Name  of  the  genus  thus  characterized  is  Lysimd- 
chia  (Loose-strife  or  peacemaker),  being  dedicated  to  Ly- 
simachus,  king  of  Sicily,  "who,"  says  Pliny,  "first  used  it 
in  medicine." 

SPECIFIC  CHAKACTEE. — The  species  whose  portrait  we 
give  is  distinguished  from  the  others  as  follows  :  It  is  an 
erect,  smooth  herb,  1-2  feet  high,  rising  from  a  slender  rhi- 
zome or  creeper,  its  stem  terete,  straight,  without  branches. 
The  leaves,  commonly  in  whorls  of  4s,  more  rarely  in  5s, 
3s  or  6s,  are  ovate-lanceolate,  pointed,  very  evenly  pinni- 
veined,  and  sessile.  The  flowers  are  on  capillary  (very  slen- 
der, or  hair-like)  peduncles,  one  in  each  axil  of  the  upper 
leaves,  and  5-parted,  with  the  petals  longer  than  the  sepals, 
golden  yellow  with  broken  black  lines.  Stamens  of  unequal 
length,  evidently  monadelplwus,  with  no  rudimentary  sta- 
mens between.  Capsule  (in  August)  globular,  5-valved, 
few-seeded. 

L.  quadrifolia,  its  specific  name,  alludes  to  its  whorled 
leaves.  There  are  other  species,  as  L.  stricta,  with  flowers 
in  a  terminal  raceme,  a  common  plant  in  grassy  meadows. 
L.  ciliata,  with  the  leaves  on  dilate  (hairy-edged)  petioles, 
and  larger  axillary  flowers,  with  5  rudiments  of  stamens,  is 
also  common.  L.  nummularia,  Moneywort,  with  trailing 

*  In  some  species  of  Loosestrife  we  shall  find  certain  little  points  or  teeth  inter- 
posed between  the  stamens  or  the  petals  alternating  with  both.  These  are  sterile 
filaments,  or  rudiments  of  stamens,  and  are  full  of  curious  instruction.  They  explain 
the  anomalous  position  of  the  stamens  in  these  flowers.  With  them  all  the  organs 
alternate.  May  we  not  make  clear  the  same  anomaly  in  Dodecatheon  and  Trientalis 
by  this  analogy?  We  have  only  to  suppose  another  set  of  stamens  or  rudiments 
intended,  between  the  stamens  and  petals. 


168  THE    LOOSESTELFE6. 

stems  and  rounded  leaves,  is  a  handsome  foreigner  fully 
naturalized. 

In  all,  we  have  10  species.  (See  Bot.  &  Flor.,  p.  212.) 
The  student  may  record  the  analysis  of  any  one  of  them  in 
connection  with  this  lesson. 

Classification. —  The  Order  PKIMTJLACE^;,  the  Prim- 
worts,  represented  by  the  genera  Lysimachia,  Trientalis,  and 
Dodecatheon,  receives  its  name  from  the  leading  genus, 
Primula,  the  Primrose.*  The  following  are  its  attributes : 

Plants  low,  herbaceous. 

Leaves  all  radical  or  mostly  opposite. 

Flowers  regular,  gamopetalous,  5-parted. 

Stamens  5,  opposing  the  5  corolla  lobes  or  petals. 

Pistils  consolidated  into  a  1 -sty led,  1 -celled  ovary. 

Placenta  free,  central. 

Seeds  many  or  few,  with  lleshy  albumen. 

The  Primworts  include  20  genera  and  216  species,  of  which  many 
are  ornamental,  especially  the  Primworts  which  have  long  been  favor- 
ites in  the  gardens  of  Europe,  and  well  known  in  ours.  Tlueir  numer- 
ous varieties  are  variously  called  Oxlip,  Cowslip,  Auricula,  Primrose, 
and  Polyanthus. 

Cyclamen  is  native  in  Syria  and  Europe.  Its  round  solid  bulb  (conn) 
is  eaten  by  swine.  Its  scapes  twist  into  a  coil  around  the  ovary  after 
flowering,  and  lie  close  to  the  ground  while  the  seeds  ripen.  It  is  very 
pretty  in  pots. 

AnagdlUs,  the  Poor-man's  Weather-glass,  is  a  beautiful  trailing 
weed.  It  opens  its  pretty  red  flowers  from  7  to  2  o'clock  if  the  weather 
be  fair,  but  closes  them  on  a  damp  or  cloudy  day.  It  is  noted  for  its 


*  Name  from  primus,  first ;  for  its  early  bloom.  The  delicate  flowers  of  some  of 
the  60  species  appear  when  all  nature  is  otherwise  inert.  They  are  chiefly  natives  of 
Europe,  and  pre-eminently  Alpine.  Amid  the  cold  blasts  of  these  dreary  regions, 
where  the  roots  are  perhaps  bathed  in  ice-cold  water,  the  little  primrose  lies  secure 
beneath  its  fleecy  mantle,  waiting  for  a  gleam  of  sunshine  only  to  melt  a  patch  of 
snow  for  it  to  smile  forth  in  all  its  loveliness  of  white,  yellow,  violet,  lilac,  and  sky- 
blue.  A  traveller  one  day  passing  over  the  Faulhorn  saw  a  field  of  snow  where  a 
horse  had  crossed,  and  the  snow  disappearing  in  his  tracks,  the  little  circles  were 
brimful  of  flowers  of  every  hue.  Only  2  species  are  native  in  the  United  States,  and 
these  so  rare  that  the  collector  looks  for  them  as  for  treasure. 


LTSIMACHIA. 


169 


seed-vessel — a  pyxis  (pp.  43, 161)  opening  like  a  snuff-box.  Being  found 
throughout  the  United  States,  though  not  abundant,  we  give  its  record 
as  a  model  for  the  Prim  worts  : 


OKGAN. 

Life,  Habit,  JVumber,  Place,  Ztehiscence,  /Tind,  Construc- 
tion, Form,  Placentation,  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

O,  low,  diffusely  spreading,  6-15',  smooth. 

Boot,  L.K. 

Oj  axial,  branching  and  fibrous. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Q  ,  procumbent,  branching,  herbaceous,  quadrangular. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Opposite,  sessile,  palmi-veined,  ovate,  entire,  smooth,  8-12". 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Axillar-y,  solitary,  peduncles  longer  than  the  leaves. 

Flower,  N.C. 

Many,  perfect,  complete,  regular,  5-parted. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Rotate,  spreading,  green,  smooth. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Persistent,  5,  united  at  base,  lanceolate-linear. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Eotate,  spreading,  red  or  blue,  or  white,  minutely  fringed. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  5,  spreading  in  sunshine,  obovate,  united  at  base. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

5,  hypogynous,  opposing  the  petals,  filaments  bearded. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

2-celled,  opening  lengthwise,  oval. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

Single,  very  short. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

Single,  capitate. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Compound,  indivisible,  1-celled.  with  free  central  placenta. 

Fruit,  ND.K.F.Q. 

Single,  a  pyxis,  opening  by  a  lid,  circumscissile. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

Many,  albuminous,  angular,  rough. 

LOCALITY.—  East  New  York,  L.  I.    (Date),  June  30,  1878. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  PHENOGAMIA  ;  GAMOPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
OKDEB.—  PRIMULACE^:—  THE  PKIMWORTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Anagallis  arvensis. 

—English,  Poor-man's  Weather-glass. 
KEMARKS.—  The  flowers  open  from  7  to  2  o'clock  if  the  weather  be  fair,  but 
close  on  a  cloudy  or  rainy  day. 

170 


THE    SPEEDWELLS. 


XLVI.  THE  SPEEDWELLS. 

Description. — Along  the  borders  of  the  woods,  in  the 
hilly  pastures,  the  open  fields,  and  even  in  the  waste  corners 
of  the  garden,  we  often  meet  the  smaller  Speedwells.  Their 
tiny  flowers  greet  us  with  a 
clear,  honest  welcome  in  the 
dewy  mornings  of  May  and 
June.  *  We  shall  know  them 
by  their  4-parted  corolla,  2 
stamens,  double  ovary,  and  by 
the  following  more  definite 

GENERIC  CHARACTERS. — 
The  Speedwells  are  small  or 
large  herbs,  with  opposite  or 
whorled  leaves,  and  small  blue, 
white,  or  reddish  flowers  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  or  in 
terminal  racemes.  A  4-parted, 
green  calyx  supports  a  gamo- 
petalous,  colored  corolla  which 
is  4-parted,  slightly  irregular, 
with  the  upper  lobe  somewhat 
enlarged.  There  are  but  two 
stamens,  placed  one  on  each 
side  of  the  upper  lobe  and 
exserted  (projecting).  The 
pistil  is  evidently  double,  for  though  only  1  style  and  1 
stigma  appear,  yet  the  ovary  is  2-lobed  and  2-celled,  and  the 
fruit  a  2-celled,  oo -seeded,  flattened  capsule. 

*  Among  the  Germans,  the  Speedwell  is  known  as  the  Flower  of  Truth,  and  the 
plant  is  taken  as  the  emblem  of  friendship.  The  popular  name,  "  Speedwell,"  is  a 
parting  salutation,  equivalent  to  "  Farewell !  "  "  Good-hye  !  "  It  comes  (says  Prior) 
from  the  evanescent  corollas,  which  fall  off  and  fly  away  as  soon  as  the  plant  is  gathered. 


FIG.  XLVI.— Ver&nica  serpyllifolia: 
2,  a  flower  ;  3,  a  capsule  with  the  per- 
sistent calyx  ;  4,  section  of  the  2-celled 
capsule. 


VERONICA    SERPYLLIFOLIA.  171 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS. — The  species  represented  in  Fig. 
XLVI,  abounds  along  road-sides,  in  hilly  pastures,  and  old 
grass-plots.  The  stem  ascends  2-6'  from  a  reclining, 
branching  base,  with  leaves  opposite,  slightly  crenate,  the 
lower  petiolate,  roundish,  the  upper  becoming  oval,  oblong, 
and  bract-like.  The  flowers  form  a  loose,  terminal  raceme, 
in  which  each  is  located  in  the  axil  of  a  bract.  The  corolla 
is  rotate  (wheel-shaped),  white,  penciled  with  blue  lines, 
scarcely  more  than  1"  in  breadth ;  and  the  pods  roundish, 
retusely  notched. 

The  Name  is  Veronica  serpyllifblia  (V.  the  Thyme- 
leaved).  The  genus  is  said  to  have  been  dedicated  to  St. 
Veronica  *  (vera,  true,  icon,  image).  It  is  extensive,  embrac- 
ing 150  species  growing  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  earth. 
The  student  will  meet  them  everywhere,  and  may  as  profit- 
ably analyze  the  following  as  the  foregoing  : 

V.  peregrina  (the  Foreigner  ;  so  it  acts,  but  it  is  native),  known  as 
Purslane  Speedwell,  0  or  0,  5-9'  high,  smoothish,  with  oblong, 
toothed  leaves,  whitish  wheel-shaped  flowers,  and  notched  pods. 

V.  arvensis  (the  Field  or  Corn  Speedwell)  0,  hairy,  with  roundish 
and  ovate,  crenate  leaves,  pale  blue  flowers,  and  obcordate  pods.  With 
the  first,  it  abounds  in  cultivated  grounds. 

V.  offlcindlis  (the  Officinal  S.)  a  If  in  woods  and  pastures,  ascends 
6-12'  from  its  decumbent  base,  with  oval,  obtuse,  serrulate  (finely  ser- 
rate) leaves,  and  the  flowers  in  a  terminal  raceme. 

V.  Scutdlldria  will  be  recognized  by  its  long  lance-linear  leaves 
and  axillary  racemes  with  filiform  stalks,  growing  in  swampy  places. 

*  In  ancient  tradition,  St.  Veronica  is  represented  as  the  daughter  of  Salome. 
When  she  witnessed  the  procession  to  Calvary  with  Christ  bearing  his  cross,  she 
wiped  the  drops  of  agony  from  his  brow  ;  and  thenceforth  the  image  of  the  Saviour 
was  miraculously  imprinted  on  the  napkin. 


THE    SPEEDWELLS. 


ORGAN. 

Zife,  .Habit,  dumber,  Place,  Ztehiscence,  .ff  ind,  Construc- 
tion, ^onn.Placentation.^ize,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

2f  ,  herb,  6-12',  ascending,  pubescent. 

Root,  L.K. 

n,  fibers  clustered  at  the  nodes  of  the  creepers. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Herbaceous,  decumbent  at  base,  caulis  aerial. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Cauline,  opp.  pinni-veined,  pet.,  oval,  obtuse,  serrulate. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Terminal  raceme  pedunculate. 

Flower,  N.C.K. 

parted,  s  ,  fertile,  irregular,  gamopetalous,  \\"  diam. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Eotate,  k-cleft,  green,  hairy. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Persistent,  4,  valvnte,  spreading,  oblong. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Caducous,  rotate,  lt-lobed,  white,  with  blue  lines. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Caducous,  U,  imbricate,  lowest  one  smallest. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

2,  exserted,  epipetalous  (on  the  petals). 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

CeUs  2,  confluent  at  apex. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

One,  double,  thread-form. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

One,  double,  2-lobed. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Compound,  2-celled,  superior,  obcordate. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

2-carpelled,  %-celled,  capsule,  valvate. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

Few,  albuminous,  ovate,  smooth. 

LOCALITY.—  Rocky  woods,  West  Farms,  N.  Y.    (Date)  June  12,  1878. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  GAMOPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
ORDER.—  SCBOPHTTLABIACE.B,  or  FIGWOBTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Veronica  officinalis. 

—English,  Officinal  Speedwell.    • 
REMARKS.—  The  plant  is  bitter  and  astringent,  used  for  tea  in  Europe,  hence 
officinal. 

LLKTAKIA    VULGARIS.  173 


XLVII.    THE  TOAD   FLAX. 

Description. — The  wayside  and  the  borders  of  fields  are 
often  ablaze  with  the  Summer  robes  of  the  Toad  Flax.  As 
it  is  wont  to  grow  in  large,  dense  patches,  the  collector  sig- 
nals its  flame-colored  flowers  at  a  long  distance. 

Analysis. — THE  LEAF  REGION. — For  the  Record,  the 
student  will  determine  the  life  and  kind  of  the  root,  the 
arrangement,  construction,  form,  and  quality  of  surface  of 
the  leaves,  and  the  place,  kind,  etc.,  of  the  inflorescence.  No 
new  nor  striking  feature  is  noticeable  in  the  parts  consti- 
tuting this  portion  of  the  plant. 

THE  FLO  WEE  REGION. — The  flowers  always  attract  the 
attention  of  the  curious  by  not  only  their  brilliant,  showy 
hues,  but  also  their  singular  structure,  both  of  which  justify 
the  popular  names, — Snapdragon,  Butter-and-Eggs,  etc. 

The  small  green  calyx  indicates  a  pentamerous  (5-parted) 
tendency  in  the  flowers,  and  the  oddly-shaped  corolla  gives 
a  faint  echo  of  the  same  by  the  5  unequal  lobes  of  its  border. 
An  inflated  tube  ends  in  a  mouth  and  lips  above,  and  in  a 
tail  (spur)  behind.  The  lower  (outer)  lip  is  3-cleft,  the 
upper  2-lobed.  The  throat  is  closed  by  the  prominent 
orange-colored  palate.  If  lateral  pressure  is  applied,  it 
gapes,  and  closes  again  with  a  snap.  In  technical  language, 
the  corolla  is  bi-labiate  (bis,  two,  labia,  lips),  or  simply 
labiate.  For  its  closed  throat  it  is  personate  (persona,  a 
mask),  and  for  its  tail,  spurred.* 


*  The  spur  is  the  nectary  and  the  entrance  to  it  is  generally  closed  by  hairs.  The 
nectar,  therefore,  can  be  reached  only  by  insects  having  a  long  proboscis.  Thus 
again  is  the  student  reminded  of  the  mutual  adaptation  of  flowers  and  insects.  Here, 
as  in  the  Evening  Primrose  and  Honeysuckle,  is  a  rich  store  of  nectar ;  but  it  is 
deeply  hidden  in  the  long  spur  or  tube,  while  the  flower  gives  off  its  strongest  fra- 
grance at  night.  Now  it  is  at  night  that  the  Sphynx  Moths  fly  abroad.  They  have 
long  tapering  wings  that  enable  them  to  poise  for  a  long  time  in  one  position.  At- 


174  THE   TOAD    FLAX. 

The  Stamens  (2)  are  didynamous  (dis,  two,  dynamis, 
power),  two  of  them  being  longer  than  the  other  two.  The 
law  of  symmetry  would  require  a  5th  stamen,  as  it  does  a 
3d  and  4th  in  Veronica.* 

The  Ovary  is  in  the  midst  of  all  (2),  surmounted  by  a 
slender  style,  and  maturing  to  an  oblong  capsule  (3)  of  2 
cells  (4).  The  many  seeds  are  wing-margined  (5),  escaping 
finally  by  chinks  opening  between  the  thin  valves. 

In  the  figure  (6)  is  represented  a  seed  dissected,  showing 
a  straight  2-lobed  embryo  in  copious  albumen. 

The  Name  is  Linaria  vulgaris.  Linaria  alludes  to  its 
general  likeness  to  the  Flax  (Linum,  whence  the  word 
linen) ;  vulgaris  is  given  because  it  is  common — too  common 
indeed,  throughout  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  for  it  often 
grows  to  an  army  of  intrusive  weeds  difficult  to  extirpate 
by  reason  of  its  long  creeping  roots,  f  Another  species, 
L.  Cymbalaria — the  pretty  Ivy-leaved  Toad  Flax,  is  often 
seen  in  the  greenhouse  and  parlor.  J 

Classification. — These  genera,  Linaria  and  Veronica, 
represent  the  great  Order  SCKOPULAKIACE^;  or  Figworts. 


tracted  by  the  light  color  and  the  powerful  odor,  they  hover  over  the  plant,  while  they 
thrust  their  long  sucking  trunk  into  tube  after  tube  as  they  flit  about,  apparently 
robbing  the  plant  of  its  honey,  but  really  serving  the  very  end  of  Nature  as  pollen- 
bearers. 

*  In  Pentstemon,  a  nearly  related  genus,  the  5th  stamen  appears  as  a  filament 
without  an  anther,  and  in  Mullein,  of  the  same  order,  the  5th  stamen  is  complete. 

t  Mr.  Watson,  in  his  Annals  of  Philadelphia,  says  that  it  was  introduced  from 
Wales,  as  a  garden  flower,  by  a  Mr.  Ranstead,  a  Welsh  resident.  Hence  one  of  its 
popular  names,  Eanstead.  This  plant  may  remind  us  that  not  everything  in  Nature 
was  designed  for  the  use  of  man  alone.  Flowers  grew,  blossomed,  and  bore  fruit  in 
the  geologic  ages,  before  man  was  created.  The  colors,  odors,  and  forms  of  flowers 
are  made  to  subserve  ends  of  their  own.  We  may  delight  in  these  beautiful  floral 
contrivances  even  without  knowing  their  design  in  the  economy  of  the  plant ;  but 
greater  should  be  our  admiration  when  we  discover  that  by  a  wise  frugality  of  means 
the  beautiful  is  also  the  useful  and  the  necessary  ! 

$  "  The  capsules  of  our  Ivy-leaved  Toad-flax  (Linaria  Cymbalaria)  before  ripening 
turn  round  toward  the  wall  on  which  the  plant  so  often  grows  and  creeps,  and  place 
themselves  in  a  crevice  or  hole,  so  as  to  shed  the  seeds,  when  ripened,  in  a  place 
where  they  will  thrive,  instead  of  scattering  them  on  the  ground  where  they  would 
be  wasted."— Pratfs  Flowering  Plants  of  Great  Britain. 


FIG.  XLYiT.— Linaria  vulgaris  :  1,  section  of  the  flower,  showing  the  arrangement 
of  the  organs ;  2,  the  stamens  and  pistil ;  3,  the  capsule ;  4,  its  cross-section  ;  5,  a 
seed ;  6,  a  seed  dissected. 


176  THE    GROUND    IVY. 

Here  also  belong  the  Mulleins,  Foxgloves,  Gerardias,  Pent- 
stemons,  and  all  other  plants  which  possess  the  following 
seven  characteristics. 

Flowers  irregular,  without  fragrance. 

Calyx  free,  persistent. 

Corolla  gamopetalous,  imbricated  in  aestivation. 

Stamens  2  or  4,  rarely  5,  inserted  on  the  corolla. 

Ovary  free,  double,  with  1  style  and  a  2-lobed  stigma. 

Fruit  a  2-celled  capsule  with  axial  placentae. 

Seeds  many,  anatropous,  albuminous. 

The  Figworts  include  180  genera,  1800  species,  abounding  in  all 
climes  and  countries.  Among  them  are  some  medicinal  and  poisonous 
plants,  as  Digitalis  (Foxglove),*  and  many  cultivated  for  their  hand- 
some flowers,  as  Calceolaria  (Ladies-slipper),  Antirrhinum  (Snapdragon), 
Pentstemons,  Maurandias,  Russellias. 

The  Officinal  Speedwell  ( V.  officindlis)  was  formerly  used  as  tea  in 
Europe,  but  there  is  no  Figwort  considered  truly  nutritious  or  useful 
for  food.f 

Scientific  Terms. — Bilabiate.  Didynamous.  Labiate.  Penta- 
merous.  Personate.  Spurred.  Wing-margined. 


XLVIII.  THE  GROUND  IVY. 

Description. — This  interesting  plant,  like  the  Dande- 
lion and  other  naturalized  foreigners,];  selects  its  home  in 

*  This  term  is  generally  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Folk's  or  Fairies'  Glove, 
these  imaginary  beings  having  formerly  been  known  as  the  "  good  folk."  There  are 
many  superstitions  attached  to  the  plant  and  it  is  still  thought  by  the  ignorant  to  be 
a  favorite  lurking  place  of  the  fairies.  In  South  Wales  the  children  are  wont  to  hold 
one  end  of  the  Digitalis  bell  and  strike  the  other  with  the  hand  to  hear  the  fairy  thun- 
der with  which  the  indignant  little  sprite  is  supposed  to  make  its  escape  from  its 
injured  retreat.  According  to  some  legends,  the  fairies  lend  the  blossoms  to  the  fox 
on  his  marauding  expeditions,  to  soften  his  already  velvet  tread. 

t  During  the  famous  siege  of  Rochelle  by  Richelieu,  in  1628,  the  garrison  for  a 
time  lived  entirely  on  the  root  of  a  kind  of  Figwort,  probably  the  Scrophularia  aquat- 
ica.  From  this  circumstance  the  plant  is  known  in  France  as  Herbe  de  Siege. 

\  Let  us  carefully  distinguish  between  our  native  and  naturalized  plants.  The 
former  are  characteristic  of  the  country,  and  have  flourished  in  its  wilds,  independent 
of  man,  for  unknown  ages.  Such  are  Dodecatheon,  the  American  Elm,  &c.  Nat- 
uralized plants  once  introduced  from  other  lands,  whether  by  accident  or  design,  find 


NEPETA.  177 

cultivated  soil.  It  prefers  shady  or  stony  places  in  parks, 
fence-rows  and  rubbish,  and  grows  with  vigor,  blooming 
from  May  to  August.  It  is  a  smooth  perennial  (  U ),  here 
prostrate  on  the  ground  only,  though  in  Europe  it  is  often 
seen,  with  Moss  and  the  True  Ivy  mantling  the  garden  wall 
and  ancient  ruin.* 

Analysis. — What  of  the  ffioots  ?  The  slender  square 
stems  creep  extensively,  forming  loose  mats,  and  putting 
forth  at  each  node  a  pair  of  leaves  and  a  tuft  of  fibrous  roots. 

The  Z/eaves  are  all  of  one  pattern,  opposite,  long-petioled, 
palmi-veined,  round-rem/orw  (kidney-shaped),  crenate,  i.  e., 
with  rounded  teeth,  on  the  margin. 

The  large  blue  Flowers  appear  in  loose  axillary  clusters. 
The  calyx  is  tubular,  slightly  curved,  15-veined,  obliquely 
5-toothed ;  corolla  a  thrice-longer  tube,  1'  long,  bilabiate, 
upper  lip  2-lobed,  lower  3-lobed,  with  the  middle  lobe 
largest.  Looking  within  the  corolla  we  find  4  didynamous 
stamens,  as  in  Linaria,  1  less  than  symmetry  requires.  They 
stand  in  pairs  tending  toward  the  upper  side,  the  inner  pair 
longer  than  the  outer.  The  anther  comprises  2  separate 
lobes  diverging  at  right  angles,  so  that  each  pair  in  contact 
forms  a  perfect  cross.  There  is  one  slender  style  with  a 
4-parted  ovary. 

here  a  soil  and  climate  congenial  to  their  nature,  and  grow  spontaneously,  as  well  as, 
or  even  better,  than  in  their  own  country.  Such  are  the  Dandelion,  Mullein,  Shep- 
herd's Purse,  Apple-tree.  They  generally  betray  their  origin  by  their  habits,  planting 
themselves  in  gardens,  fields,  highways,  wherever  the  soil  has  been  stirred  by  the 
plough,  or  trampled  by  the  foot  of  man.  The  Indians  call  our  Common  Plantain  "  the 
White  Man's  Plant,"  and  say  it  springs  up  in  his  trail,  wherever  he  plants  his  foot. 

*  In  1850,  a  deputation  waited  upon  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  England 
respecting  an  abolition  of  duties  on  window-glass.  To  enforce  their  views  as  to  the 
deleterious  effects  of  unlighted  dwellings,  they  exhibited  a  Ground  Ivy  plant,  which 
had  grown  for  some  years  in  a  Wardian  case  on  the  top  of  a  model  of  an  abbey. 
The  branches  which  were  turned  toward  the  light  were  laden  with  leaves,  flowers 
and  fruit;  while  the  stems  which  had  trailed  down  between  the  model  and  the 
window,  and  so  lost  the  light,  had  no  blossoms  or  fruit,  and  their  leaves  were  scarce 
one-tenth  as  large  as  the  others.  Every  condition  of  growth,  save  that  of  sunlight, 
was  necessarily  the  same  for  all  the  branches  of  the  plant,  and  the  dwarfed,  starved 
state  of  one  portion  arose  solely  from  that  single  deprivation. 


178 


THE    GROUND    IVY. 


The  ffiwit  consists  appar- 
ently of  4  reddish  oval  seeds 
contained,  until  ripe,  in  the 
persistent  calyx.  But  the  seeds 
must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  fruits  which  contain  them. 
There  are  4  achenia  or  nutlets, 
each  containing  1  seed. 

The  Catmint,  blooming 
early  in  July,  will  also  fall  in 


FIG.  XL VIII.— Nepeta  Glechoma  :  2,  a  'flower ;  3,  the  stamens  and  pistil ;  4,  the 
fruit — four  achenia. 

the  way  of  every  collector.  It  is  another  foreigner,  perfectly 
naturalized,  springing  up  in  waste  corners  around  our  coun- 
try dwellings.  Let  the  student  compare  the  Ground  Ivy  and 


BRTJNELLA.  179 

the  Catmint,*  and  carefully  note  the  resemblances  and  the 
differences.  The  former  will  make  up  the  generic,  the  latter 
the  specific  characters — thus  : 

RESEMBLANCES  (generic).  In  both,  the  stem  is  square ; 
leaves  opposite  ;  calyx  tubular,  15-veined ;  corolla  bilabiate  ; 
throat  not  hairy,  upper  lip  2-lobed,  lower  3-cleft,  middle  lobe 
largest ;  stamens  ascending  ;  anthers  approximating  by  pairs, 
their  2  cells  separate  and  diverging ;  style  bifid,  fruit  4 
achenia. 

DIFFERENCES  (specific).  The  Catmint  is  clothed  with  a 
whitish  pubescence  ;  the  stem  is  erect ;  the  leaves  short-pet- 
ioled,  ovate,  cordate,  acute,  crenate-serrate,  the  upper  reduced 
to  bracts  ;  the  flowers  in  dense  axillary  clusters  (verticils) ; 
corolla  not  twice  longer  than  the  calyx,  white. 

The  Name  of  the  genus  thus  characterized  is  Nepeta 
(Nepet,  a  town  in  Tuscany).  Ground  Ivy  is  N.  Glechoma 
(ancient  Greek  for  Thyme).  Catmint  is  N.  Cataria,  a  play 
on  Puss's  name,  whose  fondness  for  the  herb  is  thereby  com- 
memorated. 

XLIX.  BLUE  CURLS. 

Description. — This  plant  is  perhaps  better  known  by 
the  name  Self-heal,  f  It  is  a  native  of  low  grounds  both  in 
fields  and  forests,  flowering  from  May  to  August  according 
to  climate.  Its  squarish,  blue-flowered  cluster  is  a  familiar 
object  in  the  rural  scenes  of  our  boyhood.  In  New  England 
its  growth  is  stinted  to  a  few  inches  in  stature,  but  in  the 
rich  bottoms  of  the  West  it  attains  to  several  feet,  its  flowers 
being  proportionately  larger. 

*  Dried  specimens  of  Catmint  may  be  used  for  comparison,  when  fresh  ones  in 
flower  cannot  be  found. 

t  The  popular  name,  Self-heal,  intimates  that  with  it  one  may  cure  himself,  or  as 
expressed  in  the  French  proverb  quoted  by  Ruellius  (D« Natura  Stirpium),  "No  one 
needs  a  surgeon  who  has  Prunelle." 


180 


BLUE    CUKLS. 


Analysis.-— With  the  plant 
in  hand,  the  student  will  easily 
reply  to  inquiries  like  the  fol- 
lowing :  What  are  the  duration 
and  form  of  the  root? — the 
attitude    and  height   of    the 
stem  ? — the  length  and  form 
of  the  internodes  ? — branches? 
What  is  the 
clothing     of 
the  plant? 
What  is  the 
arrangement 
of  the  leaves? 
—  length  of 
petiole  ? — 
form  of  the 
blade?— mar- 
gin ? — apex  ? 
base  ? — vena- 
tion? 


FIG.  XLIX.— Bnm&la  vnlgaris  :  2,  a  flower  without  the  calyx, 
showing  the  spurred  filaments  ;  3,  plan  of  the  flower  ;  4,  a  flower 
of  Sage  (Salvia)  ;  5,  the  2  stamens  in  their  natural  position  ;  6, 
after  being  tilted  over  by  a  bee.* 


*  In  the  com- 
mon garden  Sage 
(Salvia  officinalis), 
there  is  a  curious 
device  for  secur- 
ing cross-fertiliza- 
tion. There  are 
but  2  stamens;  the 
2  cells  of  each  an- 
ther, instead  of  being  close  together  as  is  usual,  are  widely  separated  by  a  long  con- 
nective (5,  6).  The  lower  cell  contains  very  little  if  any  pollen,  while  the  upper  is 
full.  The  connective  is  fixed  to  the  filament  by  a  pivot,  and  naturally  stands  in  posi- 
tion as  seen  in  5.  Meanwhile  the  stigma  is  yet  immature  and  high  up  in  the  arch, 
when  a  bee  seeking  nectar  alights  on  the  door-step— the  lower  lip— and  entering  the 
tube  pushes  against  the  lower  anther  cells,  tilts  the  connective  as  seen  in  6,  bringing 
the  upper  cells  down  on  his  back.  The  next  flower  he  visits  has  perhaps  its  stigma 
mature  and  situated  as  seen  in  4,  occupying  the  same  place  which  was  before 
occupied  by  the  tilted  anthers,  which  have  now  withered  away.  The  learner  may 
observe  these  phenomena  for  himself. 


BRUKELLA    VTJLGARIS.  181 

What  is  the  form  of  the  bracts  ? — color  of  the  flower  ? — 
form  of  corolla  ? — upper  lip  ? — lower  lip  ? — number  of  the 
stamens  ? — construction  ? — which  the  longer  pair  ?— append- 
age of  the  filament  ? — 5th  stamen  ?  How  many  styles  are 
there  ? — what  are  the  kind  and  form  of  the  fruit  ? 

Observe  that  the  leaves  are  rather  obtuse  than  acute  ;  that 
the  broad  bracts  are  palmi-veined  and  tipped  with  a  cusp 
(cuspidate),  and  the  .hairs  are  jointed. 

Inflorescence* — The  flowers  occur  in  3s,  each  triplet 
occupying  the  axil  of  a  bract,  and  the  middle  flower  open- 
ing first  according  to  the  centrifugal  mode.  Such  a  cluster 
is  a  cyme.  Many  such,  with  their  bracts,  are  closely  imbri- 
cated, forming  a  dense  terminal,  4-sided  spike  (for  the  flow- 
ers are  sessile). 

The  Flowers.  The  calyx  is  colored,  bell-form  (cam- 
panulate),  2-lipped,  the  upper  lip  truncate  (square-cut),  with 
3  small  teeth,  the  lower  lip  2-cleft.  In  the  corolla,  observe 
the  vaulted  or  concave  upper  lip,  covering  the  stamens  and 
style,  the  lower,  3-lobed,  dependent  lip,  and  the  ring  ob- 
structing the  tube  within  near  the  base.*  The  longer  pair 
of  stamens  is  the  lower  (outer),  and  a  spur  or  tooth  appears 
on  each  filament  above  near  the  2-parted  anther.  Four  egg- 
shaped  achenia  are  at  length  found  in  the  bottom  of  the 
calyx,  as  in  Nepeta. 

The  Name  in  science  is  Brunella  vulgaris  ;  Brunella, 
from  the  German  braeun,  the  quinsy ;  this  plant  being  a 
reputed  remedy  for  this  disease ;  vulgaris,  common ;  since 
it  grows  in  nearly  every  country  on  the  globe. 

Classification. — Nepeta  and  Brunella  are  now  seen  to 
be  closely  related.  Features  which  they  possess  in  common 


*  In  the  labiate  flowers  it  is  noticeable  how  the  lower  lip  is  arranged  for  the  con- 
venience of  insects  alighting,  and  how  all  the  flowers  are  so  grouped  as  to  give  this 
doorstep  the  utmost  prominence. 


182  THE    MOBKIKG    GLOKY. 

characterize  the  vast  and  important  order  of  Labiate  Plants, 
or  LABIAT^G. 

Herbs  aromatic. 
Stems  quadrangular. 
Leaves  opposite,  exstipulate. 
Corolla  bilabiate  more  or  less. 
Stamens  didynamous  or  diandrous. 
Ovary  deeply  4-parted. 
Fruit  4  nutlets  or  achenia. 

The  Labiate  Plants  include  125  genera,  2350  species.  Among 
them  are  the  Mints  (Mentha) — Peppermint,  Spearmint,  etc.  ;  also 
Hoarhound  and  Hyssop,  Balm  and  Lavender,  Sage  and  Pennyroyal. 
Their  richly  aromatic  oils  are  stimulant ;  their  extracts  febrifugal, 
None  are  poisonous.  The  Oil  of  Peppermint,  the  best  known  among 
essential  oils,  is  obtained  by  distillation  from  Mentha  piperita.  Oil  of 
Lavender  is  distilled  from  Lavdndula  vera,  and  Oil  of  Spike  from 
L.  Spica.  The  former  is  used  in  perfumery,  the  latter  in  delicate 
varnishes,  etc. 


L.   MORNING   GLORY. 

41  O  bells  of  triumph  !  delicate  trumpets,  thrown 
Heavenward  and  earthward,  turned  East,  West,  North,  South, 
In  lavish  beauty  /     Who  through  you  hath  blown 
The  sweet  cheer  of  the  Morning  ?  "  CELIA  THAXTER. 

Description. — This  glorious  plant  is  a  native  of  Tropi- 
cal America  and  now  universally  cultivated.  It  is  also 
nearly  naturalized  with  us,  growing  spontaneously  as  a  weed 
from  seeds  shed  in  cultivated  grounds.  It  is  strictly  annual. 
In  a  single  season  it  accomplishes  its  wonderful  growth, 
transfers  its  own  vitality  to  a  thousand  seeds,  and  dies. 

The  Flowers  are  ephemeral  (epi  for,  hemera  a  day). 
Beginning  to  open  soon  after  midnight,  they  greet  the  Sun 
at  his  rising,  arrayed  in  all  their  glory,  and  before  he  reaches 
the  meridian,  fold  their  robes  and  perish.  But  their  work 


IPOMCEA. 


183 


stigma  •  o' 

a? ;:= 


is  done,  and  their  succes- 
sors, already  in  bud,  will 
renew  the  gorgeous  display 
the  following  morning. 

Analysis.  —  Observa- 
tion and  study  are  wont 
to  begin  with  the  Flower, 
and  for  once  we  will  re- 
verse our  usual  order.  The 
calyx,  the  outer  envelope, 
green,  persistent,  is  com- 
posed of   5    long-pointed 
sepals    combined    at    the 
base  into  a  cup.     The  in- 
ner envelope,  the  fugaci- 
ous corolla,  between  trum- 
pet and  bell-form,  of  deli- 
cate texture   and  intense 
colors,  is  composed  of  5 
broad  petals  united  along 
the  plicate  (folded)  edges, 
quite  to  the  expanding  en- 
tire border.     In  the  bud, 
the    folds    are    contorted 
(twisted)  with  the  sun,  i.e., 
from  left  to  right— a  kind 
of  aestivation  called  super- 
volute. 

The  5  stamens  adhere 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  co- 
rolla tube,  opposite  to  its 

",  a  flower ;  sta,  the  stamens ;   gf,  the  style ;  s 


184  THE   MORtflHG    GLOEY. 

folds,  and  fall  wfth  it.  The  2-celled  anther  is  adnate  (fixed 
laterally)  to  the  filament  above.  Opening  lengthwise,  the 
cells  disclose  innumerable  round,  white  grains  of  pollen, 
which,  under  the  mi- 
croscope, appear  beset 
all  over  with  blunt 
points  or  tubercles. 

The  style — the  central 
organ  —  smooth,  slender, 
supports  the  3-lobed  stig- 
ma at  the  top,  and  stands 
upon  the  free  ovary.  The 
disk*  a  fleshy  ring,  be- 
girts  the  ovary  at  its  base; 
hence  it  is  annular  and 
hypogynous.  The  eontents  of  the  ovary  will  be  understood 
by  viewing  its  various  sections  (cuttings)  under  a  lens,  when 
3  cells,  each  with  2  ovules  (young  seeds)  will  be  seen*.  Let 
the  student  observe  the  attitude  of  the  ovules,  the  place  and 
the  organ  whence  they  arise.  Their  destiny  we  well  know. 
They  will  become  the  seeds  in  the  ripening  fruit,  and  from 
them  new  plants  will  arise  the  following  year. 

The  pollen.  Watch  the  expanded  flower  at  sunrise. 
The  anther  cells  are  also  open,  and  the  pollen  is  set  free,  to 
fall,  to  fly  with  the  wind,  or  be  rudely  brushed  away  by  the 
humble-bee  as  he  plunges  into  flower  after  flower  in  search 
of  the  nectar  secreted  in  its  depths.  Thus  a  thousand  grains 
may  be  lost,  but  some  few  are  almost  certain  to  be  lodged 
on  the  stigma  standing  in  the  midst.  On  this  event  depends 

*  A  disk  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  torus  under  or  around  the  ovary.  It  may  be 
annular,  or  cup-form,  according  to  the  degree  of  its  development.  When  it  does  not 
adhere  to  the  ovary  or  calyx,  it  is  said  to  be  free  and  hypogynous  ;  when  it  adheres  to 
the  base  of  the  calyx  it  is  perigynovs.  Sometimes  it  adheres  to  both  the  calyx  and 
the  ovary,  gluing  them  together,  and  even  enlarging  on  the  top  of  the  ovary,  as  in 
the  Umbel  1  if  erse  ;  then  it  is  epigynous. 


IPOMCEA.  185 

the  life  and  growth,  i.  e.,  the  fertilization  of  the  seed.  If 
the  stigma  be  covered  or  destroyed  so  as  to  prevent  the  action 
of  the  pollen,  no  seed  will  be  perfected  in  the  ovary  and  no 
fruit  produced.  Or  if  the  stigma  remain  good  and  yet  no 
pollen  be  lodged  upon  it,  the  fruit  is  equally  sure  to  fail. 
Therefore  the  nectar  secreted  in  the  nectaries  of  the  flower, 
and  the  insect  that  comes  to  gather  it  while  unconsciously 
scattering  the  pollen,  are  both  necessary  links  in  the  Creator's 
plan.  Thus  the  flower  is  not  merely  a  thing  of  beauty.  It 
is  an  apparatus  for  a  specific  work  in  which  each  organ  per- 
forms a  definite  part.  That  work  is  the  production  of  living 
seed  for  the  perpetuation  of  its  kind  upon  the  earth. 

The  Fruit.  After  the  corolla  with  the  stamens  has  fallen, 
the  calyx  folds  itself  closely  on  the  ovary  and  covers  it  while 
both  continue  to  grow.  At  maturity  the  calyx  again  spreads 
and  discloses  a  dry,  round  pod — a  capsule,  of  curious  and 
beautiful  structure.  It  appears  3-carpelled  and  3-celled,  as 
predicted  by  the  3-lobed  stigma.  The  3  valves  separate  at 
the  lines  of  their  juncture  with  the  partitions  (a  septifragal 
dehiscence),  leaving  the  latter  persistent,  entire. 

Seeds.  We  find  in  each  cell  2  seeds,  the  perfected  work 
of  the  flower.  Their  structure  may  be  observed  by  tearing 
one  open  just  before  it  becomes  hardened,  or  by  sections  cut 
in  various  directions.  Here  is  a  pair  of  oddly  shaped,  green- 
ish leaves  joined  to  a  short  stem,  folded  and  packed  with  a 
gelatinous  substance.  It  is  the  embryo,  or  young  plant,  and 
its  nourishing  albumen.*  How  does  this  seed  differ  from 

*  The  question  of  a  seed's  vitality  is  interesting,  at  least  to  the  gardener.  He  accepts 
ail  kinds  as  good  for  a  year,  and,  as  a  rule,  rejects  such  as  are  known  to  be  older. 
There  are,  however,  many  kinds  of  seeds  which  are  long-lived.  The  seeds  of  Maize 
and  Rye  have  been  known  to  grow  after  90  or  40  years  old  ;  Kidney  Beans  when  100, 
and  the  Raspberry  (according  to  Lindley)  after  1700  years.  It  is  often  observed  that 
when,  from  deep  excavations,  earths  are  first  brought  to  the  surface,  they  are  soon 
covered  with  strange  plants,  probably  from  seeds  long  buried.  After  the  "  Great  Fire 
in  London,"  the  Hedge  Mustard  (Sisymbrium\  previously  unknown  in  that  locality, 
sprang  up  thickly  amid  the  blackened  ruins. 


186  THE    MORNING    GLORY. 

that  of  the  Apple  (p.  Ill),  or  the  Pea  (p.  118)  ?  It  has  albu- 
men separate  from  the  embryo,  while  in  the  Apple  seed  and 
Pea  there  is  no  separate  albumen,  but  the  nutritive  matter  is 
stored  up  in  the  massive  cotyledons.  Hence  that  important 
distinction  in  seeds — the  albuminous,  and  exalbuminous. 

GERMINATION. — In  the  Spring  months  you  will  find  the 
seeds  of  the  Morning  Glory  germinating  in  almost  every  gar- 
den. Our  cuts  show  them  in  various  stages.  The  seed  has 
absorbed  water  from  the  soil.  The  embryo  and  albumen  are 
softened ;  the  latter  is  sweetened,  and  so  imbibed  by  the 
growing  radicle  which  soon  protrudes  and  turns  downward. 
The  cotyledons  enlarge,  burst  the  seed-coats,  and  spread  sky- 
ward as  a  pair  of  leaves  (c,  c).  In  the  axis  between  them  a 
bud  appears,  grows,  and  in  a  few  days  its  outer  scales  begin 
to  unfold  in  succession  as  a  3d,  4th,  and  5th  leaf,  while  the 
axis  extends  into  internodes  between.  Thus  leaf  after  leaf, 
in  the  order  of  a  spiral  line,  is  unfolded,  while  the  axis  with 
its  ever-growing  bud  at  the  summit  still  mounts  higher. 

BRANCHES. — By  this  process  the  one  terminal  bud  is  de- 
veloped without  limit  into  a  plant  with  a  simple  stem.  At 
length  other  buds  appear,  one  in  the  axil  of  each  leaf.  From 
these  axillary  buds  come  the  branches  and  flower-stalks.  * 

A  CLIMBER. — The  weakness  of  the  Morning  Glory  vine  is 
compensated  by  its  wonderful  instinct.  Unable  of  itself  to 
stand  upright,  it  creeps  toward  the  nearest  support  and 
ascends  by  twining  around  it  spirally.  The  direction  of  its 


*  Carefully  examined,  the  seed,  or  starting-point  in  the  life  of  the  plant,  is  com- 
posed of  a  leaf,  or  leaves,  closely  packed,  and  altered  in  tissue  and  contents  so  as  to 
suit  its  new  requirements.  This  is  shown  in  the  germination  of  a  Bean  or  Morning 
Glory,  where  the  two  seed-lobes  (cotyledons)  arise  with  the  stem  as  leaves  nourishing 
the  young  plant.  In  the  Pea  they  remain  stationary  at  the  base  of  the  stem,  yielding 
their  nourishment  but  never  expanding.  The  bud,  which,  like  the  seed,  is  an  epitome 
of  the  plant,  is  also  composed  of  leaf-rudiments  closely  folded,  and  protected  from 
Winter  frosts  by  thick  leathery  scales,  and  evolving  in  Spring  the  stem,  leaves,  and 
fruit — in  short,  every  structure  which  comes  from  the  seed. 


IPOMCEA.  187 

turning  is  always  against  the  sun — from  right  to  left,  con- 
trary to  the  twisting  of  its  corolla  buds.  * 

The  ffioot  has  no  such  aspiration.  Growing  downward 
from  the  first  moment  of  its  breaking  through  the  seed-coats, 
it  persistently  avoids  the  air  and  light,  seeking  the  dark, 
damp  depths  of  the  soil.  Its  innumerable  fibers  are  so  many 
mouths  absorbing  water  and  earthy  matters,  which  ascend 
and  mix  with  the  air  and  gases  absorbed  by  the  leaves. 
Chemical  action  is  induced  by  the  rays  of  the  Sun,  trans- 
forming all  into  nourishing  sap  for  the  life  and  growth  of 
every  part  of  the  plant. 

The  Name. — By  the  latest  authorities  (Bentham  & 
Hooker's  Genera],  the  Morning  Glory  is  called  Ipomcea  pur- 
pur  ea.  But  it  has  many  synonyms.  In  1750,  Linnaeus  first 
named  it  Convolvulus  purpureus.  In  1790,  Lamark  trans- 
ferred it  to  the  genus  Ipomoea.  In  1840,  Choisy  separated 
it,  together  with  all  other  3-carpelled  species,  from  Ipomoea 
to  his  new  genus,  Pharbitis.  Ipomcea  is  from  ips,  Greek  for 
Bindweed,  omce-os,  like. 

Classification.  —  The  order  CONVOLVULACE^;  —  the 
Bindweeds — represented  by  the  Morning  Glory,  is  limited 
as  follows  : 

Herbs  trailing  or  climbing,  with  alternate  leaves. 

Flowers  regular,  5-parted,  perfect. 

Calyx  of  5  sepals  imbricated  in  aestivation. 

Corolla  of  5  united  petals,  supervolute  in  aestivation. 

Stamens  5,  unequal,  adhering  to  the  corolla  tube. 

Ovary  and  capsule  2  or  3-carpelled,  2-4-celled. 

Seeds  with  large  embryo  and  thin  albumen. 

The  Bindweeds  number  32  genera  and  800  species,  chiefly  inhab- 
iting the  warm  regions  of  the  globe. 

The  Sweet  Potato  is  Batatas  edulis,  a  vine  resembling  the  Morning 


*  It  seems  to  be  a  common  law  among  twining  vines  that  each  species  should  twine 
invariably  in  one  direction— some  (as  the  Hop)  always  with  the  Sun,  others  (as  Morn- 
ing Glory)  against  the  Sun. 


188 


THE   BOCK    MAPLE. 


Glory,  said  to  be  a  native  of  India.  It  is  cultivated  by  cuttings,  and 
seldom  flowers.  The  potatoes  are  tubers  growing  from  the  stem  as 
short  underground  branches.  They  serve  the  plant  as  reservoirs  of 


v\  s: 


&m*tvm 


surplus  starch  and  sugar  for 
its  use  in  early  Spring. 

Jalap,  a  well-known  drug,  is  the  root  of 
Ipom&a  perga  of  Mexico. 

Scammony  is  the  root  of  Convolvulus  Scam- 
monium  of  Syria. 

LI.  THE'  ROCK 
MAPLE. 

Description. 

—This  valuable 
tree,  known  as 
the  Eock  Maple 
or  Sugar  Maple, 
grows  in  forests, 
openings,  or 
fields,  from  Can- 
ada to  the  moun- 
tains of  Georgia, 
and  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is 
most  abundant  in  the  New  England 
States,  where  it  is  an  embellishment 


FIG    LI.— Acer    sac- 

charinum  —  the  Sugar 
Maple.  Sugar-making 
in  New  Hampshire. 


ACER. 


189 


in  almost  every  landscape.  It  is  a  handsome  tree,  cheering  the 
beholder  with  its  aspect  of  life  and  energy.  When  assembled 
in  forests,  they  grow  to  the  height  of  80  or  90  feet,  with  a 
trunk  4  or  5  feet  in  diameter,  entire  two-thirds  of  its  height* 
In  open  situations,  or  in  planted  parks  and  rows,  it  stands 
40  to  50  feet  high,  with  a 
trunk  one-third  this  height 
supporting  a  broad  pyra- 
midal leafy  crown.  But  the 
aged  trees  assume  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  picturesque 
or  beautiful,  which  the  artist 
is  never  weary  of  studying. 

Analysis. — The  ffiools 
are  often  above  ground,  espe- 
cially on  the  rocks  they  love, 
diverging  many  feet  from 
the  base,  massive  and  strong, 
finally  dissolving  and  de- 
scending deep.  A  cross-sec- 
tion of  one  will  show  the 
wood  in  annual  layers  inclosed  in  bark,  but  destitute  of  pith. 

The  Stem,  or  trunk,  in  young  trees  is  straight,  erect, 
cylindrical,  with  bark  slightly  furrowed,  gray,  clouded  with 
umber.  With  age  it  becomes  shaggy  with  long,  deep  fur- 
rows in  the  bark,  and  angular  with  woody  ridges  from  the 
main  roots  upward,  and  often  bent  and  gnarly.  The  wood 
is  hard,  compact,  pearly  white,  with  a  satin-like  luster. 
Under  a  strong  magnifier  it  appears  as  in  the  cut  (5), 
showing  clearly  the  three  kinds  of  tissue  of  which  it  is 
composed. 


5,  a  shaving  of  the  wood  of  Maple 
greatly  magnified ;  a,  the  silver  grain 
or  medullary  rays  ;  b,  spiral  tubes  con- 
veying air  or  water  ;  c,  the  proper  wood- 
cells. 


*  A  tree  in  Blandford,  Mass.,  4  feet  through  at  base,  and  108  feet  high,  yielded 
seven  and  a  half  cords  of  wood. — Emerson's  Report. 


190  THE   KOCK    MAPLE. 

The  Leaves  grow  opposite,  in  pairs,  on  long,  slender 
petioles,  palmi-veined  and  reticulated.  The  blade  is  as  broad 
as  long,  somewhat  cordate  at  base,  extended  with  the  veins 
into  5  or  7  pointed  lobes,*  each  bearing  a  few  large  teeth,  and 
with  rounded  intervals  between;  smooth  above,  a  little  downy 
and  pale-glaucous  beneath.  In  the  autumn,  they  undergo  a 
wonderful  change  of  color.  From  a  bright  green,  of  various 
shades  in  different  trees,  they  become  tinted  and  stained 
with  the  most  brilliant  hues — yellow,  orange,  scarlet,  crim- 
son, assuming  often  the  very  colors  of  flame,  to  the  sudden 
alarm  of  the  unwary,  f 

The  Flowers  appear  in  April  and  May,  together  with 
the  expanding  leaves,  proceeding  from  buds  clustered  at  and 
near  the  end  of  the  branchlets.  They  are  yellowish  green  in 
color,  in  umbel-like  corymbs,  pendulous  on  slender,  thread- 
like, downy  pedicels  about  2'  long.  There  is  a  bell-shaped, 
fringed  calyx  with  8  or  10  stamens  within,  and  no  petals. 
In  respect  to  fruit,  the  flowers  are  of  two  kinds*  In  the 


*  That  infinite  variety  of  beautiful  and  graceful  forms  for  which  the  leaf  is  dis- 
tinguished, becomes  intelligible  only  when  viewed  in  connection  with  its  venation. 
Since  it  is  through  the  veins  alone  that  nutriment  is  conveyed  for  the  development 
and  extension  of  the  tissue,  it  follows  that"  there  will  be  the  greatest  extension  of  out- 
line in  the  direction  of  the  largest  veins.  Pinni-veined  leaves,  wherein  the  midvein 
is  the  largest  and  all  the  rest  side-branches,  will  generally  be  longer  than  wide,  i.  e., 
lanceolate,  ovate,  oval,  oblong,  oblanceolate,  etc.  Palmi-veined  leaves,  wherein  there 
are  several  chief  veins  running  from  the  base  of  the  blade  to  the  margin,  will  gen- 
erally be  broad  in  outline — as  broadly  ovate,  or  orbicular,  or  reniform  ;  and  often 
palmately  trilobate,  5-lobed,  7-lobed,  according  to  the  number  of  veins.  When  the 
veirdets  are  comparatively  weak,  there  may  be  a  deficiency  of  tissue  between  the  veins, 
causing  the  leaf  to  become  either  deeply  lobed,  or  parted,  or  even  divided  up  into 
several  or  many  leaflets  ;  in  short,  it  thus  becomes  a  compound  leaf,  either  pinnately 
or  palmately  compound.  Thus  the  student  will  notice  with  surprise  that  the  general 
venation  of  a  compound  leaf  differs  in  no  wise  from  that  of  its  corresponding  simple 
leaf. 

t  The  richest  aud  most  diverse  hues  that  nature  can  produce  by  the  separation  and 
blending  of  all  the  prismatic  colors,  meet  us  in  every  grove,  hill-side,  and  mountain. 
Red  of  every  shade,  from  crimson  to  cherry  ;  yellow,  from  bright  sulphur  to  orange  ; 
brown,  from  clove-brown  to  liver-brown  ;  and  green,  from  grass-green  to  oil-green, 
stand  forth  in  distinct  spots,  yet  all  mingled  in  fantastic  proportions,  clothing  the 
landscape  with  an  almost  dazzling  brilliancy,  especially  when  lighted  up  by  the  mel- 
low rays  of  an  October  sun.— Hitchcock. 


ACER. 


191 


sterile  ( $ ),  the  stamens  are  prominently  exserted  and  the 
stigmas  deficient ;  in  the  fertile  (  ? ),  the  stamens  are  defi- 
cient and  hidden  in  the  calyx,  and  the  2  stigmas  prominent, 
with  a  double  ovary. 

The  J^ruil.  As  the  ovary  matures,  a  wing  grows  on  the 
back  of  each  carpel,  converting  the  fruit  into  2  winged 
samaras,  or  a  double  samara  (a  key),  separable  into  two 
single  ones.  In  each  there  is  one  seed,  containing  an  embryo 


11 


6,  section  of  a  samara,  showing  the  folded  cotyledons  at  e ;  7  to  11,  progressive 
stages  of  germination. 

with  2  large,  folded  cotyledons,  and  no  albumen.  Jtjs  in- 
structive to  watch  the  progress  of  these  seeds  in  germination, 
as  may  be  seen  in  all  stages,  in  living  specimens,  under  the 
Maples  in  Spring,  as  represented  in  the  cuts. 

The  Sap  of  the  Rock  Maple  is  rich  in  sweetness,  contain- 
ing about  1  part  of  sugar  to  30  parts  of  water.  Early  in 
March,  or  in  February,  while  the  buds  are  yet  dormant,  the 
sap  begins  to  arise  from  the  roots,  and  will  overflow  through 
tubes  inserted  in  auger-holes  cut  deep  into  the  wood  for  this 


192  THE    HOUSE    CHESTNUT. 

purpose.  The  sugar  is  obtained  by  vaporization  over  hot 
fires.  When  the  buds  begin  to  open  into  leaves  and  flowers, 
the  overflow  of  sap  ceases. 

The  Name  of  the  Rock  Maple,  Acer  saccharlnum,  is 
characteristic — acer,  sharp,  vigorous,  saccharum,  sugar. 
Other  kinds,  both  native  and  foreign,  inhabit  our  forests 
and  parks.  (See  Botanist  and  Florist,  p.  74.)  Among  native 
species,  A.  rubrum,  the  Red,  or  Swamp  Maple,  with  early 
crimson  flowers  and  red-tinged  leaves,  will  claim  the  learner's 
attention ;  also,  A.  dasycarpum,  the  White  or  Silver-leaved 
Maple,  with  leaves  silvery-white  beneath. 

A.  Pennsylvdnicum,  is  a  small,  graceful  tree,  12  to  20  feet 
high  in  northern  forests,  of  many  peculiar  traits.  Its  leaves 
are  generally  3-lobed,  and  the  flowers  with  5  petals,  in  long 
drooping  racemes,  are  uncommonly  showy.  It  is  called 
Striped  Maple,  because  of  the  smooth  bark  colored  green  and 
dark-brown  in  alternate  longitudinal  lines.  It  is  the  Moose- 
wood  in  Maine,  its  bark  and  tender  branches  being  the  fa- 
vorite winter  food  of  the  Moose  ;  and  it  also  bears  the  name 
of  Whistlewood,  from  the  facility  with  which  the  boys  con- 
vert its  straight,  smooth  branches  into  musical  instruments. 


Lll.  THE  HORSE  CHESTNUT. 

Description. — This  splendid  tree  is  a  native  of  Northern 
Asia,  whence,  by  way  of  Constantinople,  it  emigrated  to 
Europe,  and  from  Europe  to  America.  Here  it  is  extensively 
planted  for  ornament  and  shade.  It  is  noted  for  its  rapid 
growth,  massive  foliage,  and  symmetrical  proportions ;  but 
rejected  by  artists  as  wanting  the  picturesque. 

Analysis. — The  Trtmfc  is  a  straight,  cylindric  column, 
with  bark  comparatively  smooth,  entire  a  third  of  its  height, 


^SCULUS. 


193 


thence  excurrent,  giving  off  numerous  straight  branches  and 
forming  an  oyal  or  pyramidal,  dense  crown  of  foliage. 

The  Leaves  are  a  perfect  exemplification  of  symmetry 
and  order.    In  arrangement  they  are  in  pairs,  one  leaf  oppo- 


FIG.  LIL— JSsculus  Hyppocastanum. 


3,  seed  germinating. 


site  another,*  supported  on  long  slender  petioles.    At  top 
the  petiole  divides,  as  in  the  Maple,  into  7  veins  diverging 

*  The  learner  has  already  observed  three  modes  of  leaf -arrangement,  viz.,  the 
alternate  in  the  Roseworts,  etc.,  the  opposite  in  the  Maples,  and  the  verticillate  in  the 
Loosestrife.  He  will  now  be  interested  in  comparing  them.  In  the  alternate  arrange- 
ment there  is  only  one  leaf  at  each  node  ;  in  the  opposite,  there  are  two,  and  in  the 
verticillate,  3  or  more.  The  true  nature  of  the  alternate  may  be  learned  by  an  experi- 
ment. Select  a  straight,  leafy  shoot  or  stem  of  an  Apple-tree,  Evening  Primrose,  or 
any  plant  with  seemingly  scattered  leaves.  Beginning  with  the  lowest  leaf,  fix  a 
thread  to  the  base  of  the  petiole.  Pass  then,  right  or  left,  to  the  next  leaf  above  and 
do  the  same  ;  thence  to  the  next  in  the  same  direction,  and  so  on  by  all  the  leaves  to 
the  top.  The  thread  will  form  a  regular  spiral.  Let  the  same  experiment  be  repeated 
in  a  shoot  with  opposite  leaves,  and  two  spirals  running  parallel  with  each  other  will 
be  found  ;  and  in  the  case  of  verticillate  leaves,  as  many  spirals  as  there  are  leaves  in 
each  verticil.  Hence  the  course  of  development  in  all  growing  plants  is  spiral.  (See 
Class-Book,  pp.  46-50,  on  Phyllotaxy.) 


THE   HOBSE   CHESTNUT. 

into  a  circlet,  each  becoming  the  midvein  of  a  leaflet.  The 
leaflets  are  inversely  lanceolate,  or  oblanceolate,  and  serrate. 
Such  leaf  forms  are  palmately  compound  and  digitate  (finger- 
shaped),  with  the  same  venation  as  the  simple  leaf  of  the 
Maple  (note,  p.  193). 

The  Inflorescence  is  terminal,  centrifugal,  in  showy, 
erect,  pyramidal  panicles,  strongly  contrasted  in  colors  with 
the  deep  green  of  the  foliage. 

The  Flowers  are  irregular,  unsym  metrical,  complete 
though  often  infertile.  The  5  sepals  united  at  base  form  a 
5-lobed  calyx.  The  5  white  petals  dashed  here  and  there 
with  yellow  and  red,  are  entirely  distinct.  The  7  stamens 
with  the  1  slender  style  are  twice  bent — downward,  then 
upward.  The  ovary  is  3-celled,  with  2  ovules  in  each  cell. 

The  Fruit  is  a  3-valved  burr,  beset  with  prickly  points 
without,  and  occupied  within  by  only  one  (rarely  2)  large 
mahogany-colored  seed.  *  It  thus  fails  to  fulfil  the  promise 
of  its  ovary.  Of  the  6  ovules,  only  one  grows,  to  the  sup- 
pression of  the  others  and  2  of  their  cells.  A  careful  exam- 
ination will  show  the  strangled  rudiments,  f  The  seed,  often 
1'  in  diameter,  includes  2  huge  cotyledons  inseparably  united, 
without  albumen.  In  germination,  their  2  petioles  (for  the 
cotyledons  are  leaves)  lengthen,  and  the  plumule  (tho  pri- 
mary bud)  issues  from  between  them. 

The  Name,  jffisculus,  the  title  of  this  genus,  was  the 
ancient  Latin  name  of  a  certain  Oak  with  esculent  fruit. 
JE.  liyppocdstanum  =  horse-chestnut,  alludes  to  its  former 
reputation  as  a  veterinary  medicine. 

j&i.  glabra,  with  prickly  fruit,  and  ^23.  flava,  with  smooth 


*  One  regrets  that  these  beautiful  seeds  are  not  esculent  like  the  Chestnut.  They 
are  however  greedily  eaten  by  deer,  and  in  Switzerland  they  have  proved  to  be  an 
excellent  food  for  sheep,  giving  a  rich  flavor  to  the  meat. 

t  Similar  suppressions  habitually  occur  in  the  Oak,  Birch,  etc.  The  acorn  is  1-seeded 
from  a  3-celled,  6-ovuled  ovary  (p.  208-9). 


ASCLEPIAS.  195 

fruit,  are  native  species,  called  Buckeye.  Both  are  large 
forest  trees,  with  5  leaflets  and  4  petals.  Other  species  are 
shrubs,  with  red  or  purple  panicles,  often  seen  in  shrubberies. 
Classification. — ^Esculus  and  Acer  would  seem,  at  first 
view,  to  have  little  affinity  with  each  other ;  but  of  late, 
botanists  have  included  both,  together  with  Sapindus 
(Soapberry),  Staphylea  (Stafftree),  and  other  genera  equally 
diverse  in  aspect,  in  the  same  order — the  SAPLNDACE^E,  or 
Soapworts.  Their  affinities  are  approximate  rather  than 
identical,  so  that  the  ordinal  character  cannot  be  satisfacto- 
rily formulated. 

The  Soapworts  comprehend  73  genera,  650  species,  divided  into 
four  suborders,  found  in  all  northern  countries,  and  abundant  within 
the  Tropics. 

Sapindus  (sapo-indicus  =.  Indian  Soap)  gives  name  to  the  order.  One 
of  its  species,  S.  margindtus,  called  Soapberry,  grows  in  Georgia  and 
westward.  It  is  a  small  tree,  with  pinnate  leaves,  flowers  in  large 
panicles,  and  berries  reddish-brown  as  large  as  grapes,  and  full  of  a 
soapy  pulp.  Other  species  in  the  W.  Indies,  more  abundant  in  alkali, 
are  actually  used  in  washing  linen. 

PauUinia,  of  Brazil,  affords  the  Guarana,  a  popular  beverage  resem- 
bling tea  in  its  effects.  The  seeds  are  dried,  pulverized,  kneaded  into 
dough,  then  dried  in  cakes  for  the  market. 


Llll.  SILK  GRASS. 

Description. — A  stout  herb  a  yard  in  height,  surcharged 
with  milk-white  juice,  and  bearing  globular  clusters  of  bloom 
in  June  and  July,  is  a  sight  familiar  to  the  traveler  in  the 
low-lands  along  the  streamlet  or  wayside.  The  plant  is 
variously  called  Milkweed  or  Silk-grass.  We  shall  leave  the 
student  alone,  to  study  for  record  the  organs  constituting  the 
leaf-region.  The  flowers  and  fruit  present  new  and  strangely 
curious  structures. 


196 


SILK   GKASS. 


FIG.  LIU.—  AsclSpias  Conrnti :  1,  a  flower  natural  size  ;  2,  a  flower  enlarged  ;  3, 
the  ovaries  (advanced)  and  compound  anther  exposing  the  pollinia  ;  4,  a  pair  of  pol- 
linia  attached  to  the  gland  ;  5,  one  of  the  hoods  with  its  horn  ;  6,  vertical  section  of 
anther  and  ovaries  of  A.  phytolaecoides,  with  2  pollinia  in  place ;  7,  a  hood  of  the 
same  ;  8,  a  follicle  ;  9,  a  follicle  open,  showing  the  fledged  seeds  imbricated  on  the 
large  placenta. 

Analysis. — The  Inflorescence  is  a  simple  umbel  with 
pedicels  (or  rays)  all  of  equal  length  and  diverging  in  every 
direction.  The  5  lanceolate  petals,  slightly  gamopetalous  at 
the  base,  are  valvate  in  bud,  and  after  opening,  sharply  re- 
flexed,  concealing  the  5  sepals,  and  exposing  the  corona 


ASCLEPIAS.  197 

(staminate  crown)  to  view.  This  consists  of  5  fleshy,  rose- 
white  hoods  attached  to  the  mass  of  united  anthers  and  stig- 
mas. From  the  opening  of  each  hood  projects  a  little  curved 
horn.  Both  hood  and  horn  are  of  unknown  use. 

*Po22en .  Of  the  5  anthers,  each  contains  2  club-shaped 
masses  of  pollen  (pollinia)  suspended  in  pairs  beneath  the 
disk  of  the  stigma  by  slender  stipes  attached  to  5  double 
glands.  The  pollinia  of  adjacent  anthers  are  so  united.  The 
glands  are  very  sticky  and  adhere  to  such  insects  as  call  in 
quest  of  honey,  while  their  pollinia  are  dragged  out  of  the 
anthers  and  carried  to  other  flowers.  This  may  be  for 
the  purpose  of  cross-fertilization ;  but  the  double  pollinia 
dangling  "like  saddle-bags"  from  the  legs  of  the  insects 
often  prove  very  annoying. 

Under  the  staminal  mass  are  2  ovaries,  each  1-celled  with 
numerous  ovules.  But  few  of  the  ovaries  in  the  umbel  are 
fertilized  and  come  to  maturity. 

The  Jfytrit  is  lance-shaped,  with  a  rough  exterior,  1-celled, 
and  opens  by  a  slit  along  the  inner  side.  Such  we  call  a 
follicle.  It  incloses  many  flat  seeds  imbricated  on  the  large 
placenta,  each  fledged  with  a  tuft  of  long  silky  hairs  called 
a  coma.  These  serve,  like  the  down  of  the  Dandelion,  to 
waft  the  seeds  to  a  distance. 

The  Scientific  Name  of  the  Milkweed  shown  in  the 
figure,  is  AscUpias  Cornuti,  or  the  Horned  Asclepias,  the 
genus  being  dedicated  to  ^Esculapius,  the  god  of  Medicine. 
There  are  50  species,  which  differ,  however,  in  only  a  few 
particulars  from  the  description  in  the  text. 

Classification. — The  order  of  the  Asclepiads  (AscLE- 
PIADACE^E)  may  be  formulated  as  follows  : 

Plants  with,  a  milky  juice. 

Flowers  regular,  perfect,  5-parted,  symmetrical. 

Stamens  and  stigma  consolidated. 


198 


SILK    GBASS. 


Anthers,  each  with  2  pollinia. 
Ovaries  2,  with  1  stigma. 
Fruit,  1  or  2  follicles. 
Seeds  with  a  coma. 


ORGAN. 

Life,  .Habit,  dumber,  Place,  Ztehiscence,  JTind,  Construc- 
tion, .Form.  Placcntation,  /Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

V,  erect,  branching,  2-3  ft.,  leafy,  pubescent  in  lines,  milky. 

Root,  L.Q. 

y.  ,  axial,  branching. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Caulis  erect,  herbaceous,  branched,  U-sided. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Petiolate,  opp.,  pinni-v.,  lanceolate,  pointed,  obtuse  at  base. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Umbels  term,  and  axillary,  pedunculate. 

Flower,  N.C. 

co  ,  perfect,  5-parted,  gamop.,  with  a  corona  of  5  hoods 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Small,  rotate,  valvate.                     [seated  on  the  stamens. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Decid.  5,  spreading,  ovate,  smooth. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Gamopetalous,  valvate,  rose-red. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Decid.  5,  oblong,  reflexed  hoods  shorter  than  the  slender 

* 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

5,  united,  on  the  corolla  at  base.                 [incurved  horns. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

Each  vertically  %-celled,  joined  to  the  stigma. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

None. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

Pollinia  united  in  pairs  to  5  sticky  glands  on  the  5  angles 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

2,  distinct,  conical.                                        [of  the  stigma. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

Follicle  mostly  but  one,  smooth. 

Seed,  N.C.F.QA. 

Anatropous,  flat,  imbricated,  oval,  comous. 

LOCALITY.—  In  a  swamp,  Lexington,  Mass.    (Date),  June  20,  1870. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  GAMOPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
—Order,  ASCLEPIADACE.E,  THE  ASCLEPIADS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Asclepias  incarnata. 

—  English,  Sivamp  Milkweed. 
REMARKS.—  The  corona  is  rose-red  like  the  petals. 

POLYGOtfUM.  199 

The  Asclepiads  number  146  genera  and  1300  species,  most  abun- 
dant in  S.  India,  S.  Africa,  and  Australia.  There  are  comparatively  few 
species  in  the  United  States. 

Butterfly-weed,  or  Pleurisy  Root  (Asdepias  tulerosd),  a  handsome 
plant  with  orange-colored  flowers,  native  in  our  pastures  and  meadows, 
is  employed  medicinally  as  a  laxative  and  diaphoretic. 

DiscMdia,  of  E.  India,  is  a  famous  Pitcher  Plant. 

The  Cow  Tree  of  Ceylon  (Gymnema  lactiferum)  yields  a  bland,  whole- 
some milk  which  the  natives  use  for  food. 

The  Wax  Plant  (Hoya),  from  the  W.  Indies,  with  wax-like  leaves 
and  umbels,  is  a  favorite  house  plant. 

Stapelia,  with  flowers  so  foetid  as  to  deserve  the  name  "Carrion 
Flower,"  is  a  large  S.  African  genus.* 

The  Record  of  A.  incarnata,  another  species  quite  com- 
mon, is  here  annexed  as  a  model  for  the  order. 

Scientific  Terms. — Coma.  Corona.  Gamopetalous.  Hoods. 
Horns.  Pollinia. 


LIV.  SPOTTED  KNOTWEED. 

Description. — In  June,  and  after,  the  Spotted  Knotweed 
displays  its  flesh-colored  spikes.  Like  the  other  foreigners, 
it  seeks  cultured  fields  and  the  waste  corners  about  our 
dwellings  ;  and  the  garden  which  is  free  from  its  encroach- 
ment is  well  kept.  None  favors  the  intruder,  yet  the  bot- 
anist may  profit  by  the  study  of  its  wonderful  organization. 

Analysis. — The  3toot.  We  first  note  that  the  root  is 
axial  in  its  kind,  and  a  cross-section  shows  but  one  woody 
layer  ;  hence  it  is  annual.  The  stem  is  remarkable  for  the 
distinctness  of  the  internodes,  the  nodes  being  excessively 
swelled,  and  looted  with  the  stipules. 

*  This  plant  is  sometimes  cultivated  in  the  green-house  for  the  pake  of  its  gro- 
tesque branches  and  pretty  flowers.  So  carrion-like  is  its  odor  that  the  common 
blue-bottle  fly  is  said  often  to  make  the  mistake  of  "blowing  "  it,  i.  e.,  of  depositing 
its  eggs  upon  the  petals,  where  they  occasionally  hatch,  but  only  to  starve, 


200 


SPOTTED    KNOTWEED. 


FIG.  LIV.— Polygonum  Persicaria  :  2,  portion  of  a  cluster  enlarged ;  3,  a  flower ; 
4,  ovary  and  2  styles ;  5,  achenium  ;  6,  seed  dissected,  showing  the  embryo. 

The  Stipules  are  of  a  pattern  called  oclirece.  They  grow 
in  pairs  from  the  base  of  the  petiole  as  usual,  but  unite  into 
a  membranous  sheath  clasping  the  node  and  stem  like  a  boot 
(ochrea),  and  in  this  species  are  fringed,  or  ciliate  with  a  few 
long  hairs.  The  outline,  margin,  construction  and  quality 
of  the  leaf,  including  the  heart-shaped  spot  in  the  center, 
should  all  be  noted. 


POLYGCWUM.  201 

The  Flowers,  small  and  numerous,  are  supported  on 
pedicels  ;  hence  the  cluster,  which  seems  from  its  density  a 
spike,  is  properly  a  raceme.  They  are  regular,  but  very  un- 
symmetrical,  consisting  of  5  sepals,  6  stamens,  2  stigmas  and 
1  ovary.  Like  the  flowers  of  Hepatica  (p.  55)  they  are  apet- 
alous,  having  but  one  set  of  envelopes. 

The  J^rmt.  The  ovary  ripens  into  a  lens-shaped,  black, 
polished  achenium  still  inclosed  in  the  persistent,  rose-col- 
ored calyx.  The  one  seed  contains  a  curved,  inverted 
embryo  on  the  side  of  a  starchy  albumen. 

The  Name. — Polygonum  Persicdria  is  the  classic  name, 
the  former  meaning  many- jointed  (Gr.  polys,  many,  gone, 
joints)  ;  the  latter,  peach-leaved,  alluding  to  the  resemblance 
of  the  leaves  to  those  of  the  Peach-tree  (Persica,  Tournef.). 
Other  species  of  Polygonum  will  also  be  found  flowering  in 
June  and  July,  and  may  be  profitably  studied  with  this,  to 
mark  the  distinctive  specific  characters  of  each,  viz. : 

P.  Pennsylvdnicum,  the  Pennsylvanian  Knotweed,  a  na- 
tive species  growing  in  wet  places,  has  the  Tipper  parts  beset 
with  minute  glandular  hairs  (glandular-hispid),  the  flowers 
in  dense  racemes,  stamens  8,  etc. 

P.  aviculare,  the  Bird  Knotweed,  prostrate  in  dooryards, 
has  small  (!'  and  less)  leaves,  and  minute  axillary  flowers. 
The  seeds  furnish  food  for  many  wild  birds. 

P.  ampliiUum  (amphibious)  grows  either  in  water,  or  on 
land.  It  is  our  largest  native  species,  with  leaves  5-7'  long 
and  bright  red  flowers  in  thick  spikes  1-2'  long.  Stamens 
only  5.  It  is  smooth  when  growing  in  water,  viscid-hairy, 
on  land.* 


*  The  beautiful  rosy  petals  of  Polygonum  amphibium  are  rich  in  honey.  The 
stamens,  however,  are  short,  and  the  pistil  projects  above  the  corolla.  The  nectar  is 
unprotected  and  accessible  even  to  small  insects  like  the  ant.  The  stamens  ripen 
before  the  pistil,  and  any  flying  insect,  however  small,  coming  from  above  would 
assist  in  cross-fertilization.  Creeping  insects,  on  the  contrary,  would  rob  the  honey 


202 


SPOTTED    KNOTWEED. 


ORGAN. 

Lite,  Habit,  dumber,  Place,  TTind,  Construction,  Form, 
Placentation,  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

O,  herb,  in  damp  places,  1-2  ft.,  glandular-hispid  above. 

Root,  L.K. 

Annual,  axial,  branching. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Herbaceous,  erect,  branching,  with  nodes  swollen. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Alter.,  pin.-veined,  ochreate,  lanceolate,  rough-edged,  2—5'. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Terminal,  racemes,  pedunculate. 

Flower,  N.C. 

Uneymmetrical,  perfect,  apetalous,  1"  diameter. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Polyphyllous,  rosaceous,  rose-colored. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Persistent,  5,  imbricated,  erect,  oval. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Wanting. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Wanting. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

8,  hypogy  nous,  f,lament  slender,  included. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

Innate,  longitudinal,  %-celled,  oval. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

Two-parted,  terminal. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

Two,  terminal,  capitate. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Double,  superior,  ovoid. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

1,  indehiscent,  acheninm,  lenticular  with  flat  sides. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

1,  albuminous,  dicotyledonous. 

LOCALITY.—  Ditches,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.    (Date),  June  13. 
CLASSIFICATION.-APETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
—Order,  POLYGONACE.S:. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Polygoiium  Penusylvanicum  JL. 

—English,  Pennsylvanian  Knotweed. 
REMARKS.  —  The  upper  nodes  and  peduncles  rough  or  hispid  with  minute 
stalked  glands. 

without  benefiting  the  plant.  To  prevent  the  visits  of  the  latter,  therefore,  the  hairs 
secrete  a  viscid  fluid,  which  makes  the  stem  slippery  and  difficult  to  climb.  This 
plant,  as  its  name  denotes,  may  live  in  the  water.  In  that  case  it  is  safe  against  those 
climbing  pilferers,  and  then  the  stem  is  smooth,  with  no  hairs  and  no  sticky  sub- 
stance. The  arrangement  is  a  special  one,  and  furnished  only  when  needed  in  the 
economy  of  the  plant. 


POLYGOHUM.  203 

P.  orientals,  Lady's  Thumb,  a  foreigner,  about  houses,  tall 
(6  ft.)  and  stout,  has  the  ochreae  with  a  spreading  border,  the 
flower  clusters  large,  rose-colored,  stamens  7,  etc. 

Classification. — The  order  POLYGON ACE^: — the  Sorrel- 
worts — may  be  characterized  as  follows  : 

Herbs  with  alternate  leaves  and  swollen  joints. 
Stipules  in  the  form  of  ochres  sheathing  the  stem  (a  feature  by 
which  the  genus  may  be  recognized  at  sight). 
Flowers  apetalous,  with  a  persistent  calyx. 
Ovary  1-celled,  with  2  or  3  styles  or  stigmas. 
Achenium  with  1  erect  albuminous  seed. 

The  Sorrel  worts  number  33  genera  and  690  species  abounding 
in  all  countries.  Among  these  are — 

The  Buckwheat  Plant  (Fagopyrum)  indigenous  in  Northern  Asia, 
now  extensively  cultivated  as  an  article  of  food  in  general  use,  and  by 
bee-keepers  as  a  valuable  honey  plant.  The  small  black  kernel  with 
white  albumen,  whence  the  '  flour '  is  obtained,  has,  as  every  one  knows, 
the  form  of  a  Beechnut  (German,  Buck}.  Hence  its  name,  both  English 
and  classical,  is  equivalent  to  Beech- wheat. 

Rhubarb  (Rheum  Raponticum),  also  from  Asia,  is  the  well-known 
Pie  Plant.  The  pulpy  tissue  of  the  petioles  is  made  acid  by  the  oxa- 
late  of  lime.  Several  species  of  Rheum  yield  the  medicinal  rhubarb- 
root  of  the  shops. 

Dock  (Rumex),  both  the  Broad-leaved  and  the  Narrow-leaved, 
everywhere  abounds  as  a  "  pernicious  weed  ; "  yet  the  roots  of  some 
species  afford  a  valuable  medicine. 

Sheep  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella)  has  a  pleasant  acid  foliage,  and 
abounds  in  old  fields  and  pastures  where  there  is  a  lack  of  alkali  in 
the  soil,  reddening  with  its  minute  flowers  many  a  sterile  knoll  and 
hillside.* 

Scientific  Terms.— Apetalous.  Ciliate.  Ochreae.  Raceme.  Spike. 


*  In  their  modes  of  fertilization  there  is  much  diversity  among  the  plants  of  this 
order.  The  various  species  of  Rumex  are  destitute  of  honey,  and  wind-fertilized. 
Of  the  Polyganums,  P.  aviculdre,  the  Bird  Knotweed,  is  probably  self-fertilized.  P. 
Persicaria  is  proterandrous,  its  stigmas  ripening  after  their  anthers  have  shed  their 
pollen,  while  the  Buckwheat  is  dimorphous,  some  of  it  with  long  stamens  and  short 
styles,  others  with  long  styles  and  short  stamens. 


204  THE    SPURGES. 


LV.  THE  SPURGES. 

Description — Some  of  these  homely  plants  are  common 
throughout  the  country.  They  are  noted  for  their  acrid, 
milky  juice.  The  attention  of  the  botanist  is  due  them  on 
acceunt  of  the  strange  construction  of  the  flowers.  The 
Spurge  here  figured  will  be  found  blossoming  in  June  and 
after,  in  open  fields  and  waysides. 

Analysis.— GENERIC  CHARACTERS.— The  Flowers  of  the 
Spurges  are  often  too  small  to  be  understood  without  the  aid 
of  a  microscope.  The  "calyx"  is  cup-shaped,  bearing  on 
its  margin  5  or  4  glands  of  peculiar  form  and  red  or  white 
color.  Within  it  stand  several  or  many  stamens,  each  with  a 
minute  bractlet  attached  at  its  base,  and  a  joint  above.  •  In 
the  midst,  is  an  ovary  raised  on  a  foot-stalk  and  tipped  with 
3  styles,  each  2-cleft,  so  that  there  are  6  stigmas  (half- 
stigmas). 

Now  what  mean  these  bractlets,  joints,  and  foot-stalk  ? 
They  imply,  as  botanists  interpret,  that  each  stamen  is  a 
flower  of  itself — a  staminate,  monandrous  flower  with  a  ped- 
icel in  the  axil  of  a  bract ;  that  the  ovary  is  a  pistillate 
flower  consisting  of  3  united  carpels  ;  and  the  "  calyx  "  is-  an 
involucre  inclosing  the  little  flower-group.  As  it  grows 
older,  the  pistillate  flower  arises  on  its  pedicel  quite  outside 
of  the  involucre  and  ripens  into  3  carpels,  separable  into 
3  nutlets,  each  with  one  seed. 

The  milk-white  juice  already  noted,  flows  from  every 
incision,  is  always  acrid  in  taste,  in  some  species  venomous, 
and  it  should  be  avoided. 

The  Name  Euphorbia  is  the  title  of  the  genus  charac- 
terized in  the  above  description — a  genus  of  vast  extent, 
growing  in  all  countries  and  embracing  more  than  700  spe- 


EUPHORBIA. 


205 


cies.  The  original  one  (E.  officinarumf),  discovered  by 
King  Juba  in  Barbara,  was  so  named  by  him  in  honor  of 
Euphorbus,  his  chief  physician. 


FIG.  LV.  —  Euph6rbia  maculata  :  2,  section  of  an  involucre  showing  the  $  flowers  ; 
3,  a  $  flower  with  its  bract ;  4,  an  involucre  entire,  showing  the  1  ?  flower,  etc. ;  5, 
section  of  ovary  ;  6,  section  of  a  seed  of  E.  Ldthyris,  with  embryo,  and  (<X)  caruncle. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTER, — The  species  before  us  differs  from 
all  others  in  the  following:  combination  of  characters  :  Root 


206  THE    SPUEGES. 

annual.  Stems  prostrate,  diffuse,  reddish,  puberulent,  with 
opposite  leaves  and  alternate  branches.  The  leaves  are  of 
two  sizes,  3"  to  6"  long,  oblong,  very  oblique,  obtuse,  serru- 
late, with  a  red-brown  spot  in  the  center,  and  small  fringed 
stipules  at  the  base  of  the  short  petiole.  The  minute  flow- 
ers issue  in  dense,  bracted,  lateral  clusters  on  a  short  pedun- 
cle, making  no  display.  Glands  of  the  involucre  4,  red. 
Seeds  ovoid,  4-angled,  transversely  rugous  (wrinkled),  with 
no  caruncle,  as  some  species  have  (6,  d).  This  is  E.  macu- 
lata,  the  Spotted  Spurge. 

E.  hypericifdlia  is  another  closely  related  and  equally  com- 
mon species.  It  differs  only  in  being  erect  (1-2  ft.),  with 
leaves  larger  (!'),  often  slightly  falcate  (curved  like  a  sickle 
=  falx),  and  the  flowers  terminal. 

E.  corollala,  abundant  westward,  is  our  most  showy  kind. 
It  stands  erect  2-3  feet,  bearing  an  umbel  of  white  5-lobed 
involucres.  Its  perennial  root  is  a  purgative  more  violent 
than  Ipecac. 

Classification. — The  order  EUPHORBIACE^E  (the  Spurge- 
worts)  is  very  large,  generally  limited  as  follows  : 

Plants  with,  a  milky,  acrid  juice. 
Flowers  incomplete  and  imperfect. 
Ovary  free,  3-celled,  with  3  or  6  stigmas. 
Ovules  suspended  from  the  top  of  the  cell. 
Fruit  3-lobed,  separating  into  3  carpels. 
Seeds  1  or  2  in  each  carpel,  anatropous. 
Embryo  straight,  2-lobed,  in  oily  albumen. 

The  Spurgeworts  number  190  genera,  3200  species.  As  a  whole, 
the  milky  juice  is  venomous,  but  many  species  afford  valuable  oils, 
resins,  and  farinaceous  food. 

Castor  Oil  is  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  Bfoinus  commilnis,  a  well- 
known  gigantic  annual  in  Northern  gardens,  but  a  stately  tree  in  the 
South. 

Croton  Oil,  a  powerful  purgative  and  external  irritant,  is  from  the 
seeds  of  Croton  Tifjlium  of  India. 


QUERCUS.  207 

The  tonic  Cascarilla  is  the  bark  of  Croton  Eleuteria  of  Brazil. 

Capers,  used  in  pickles,  sauces,  etc.,  are  the  3-lobed  fruit  of  Euphor- 
bia Ldthyris,  often  seen  in  our  gardens. 

Tapioca  is  obtained  from  the  Bitter  Cassava  (Jatropha  Mdnihot),  a 
shrub  extensively  cultivated  in  S.  America.  Its  tuberous  root,  some- 
times weighing  30  Ibs.,  is  full  of  a  poisonous  juice.  In  preparing  it 
for  food,  it  is  first  scraped  to  a  pulp  and  pressed  to  remove  the  poison. 
The  cakes  of  cassiva  thus  formed  are  dried  and  baked,  making  a  bread 
commonly  used  by  the  poorer  classes.  When  the  expressed  juice  is 
allowed  to  stand,  a  delicate  starch  is  deposited,  which,  when  washed 
and  granulated  on  hot  iron  plates,  forms  the  Tapioca  of  commerce. 

India  Rubber  is  the  thickened  juice  of  Siphdnia  eldstica,  a  tree  grow- 
ing in  Guiana  (see  Chemistry,  p.  227). 

Boxwood,  used  by  engravers,  and  for  mathematical  instruments,  and 
also  cultivated  for  borders,  is  Buxus  sempermrens  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  so-called  Blinding  Tree  (Exccecdria  Agdllocha)  of  the  Moluccas 
has  a  juice  so  acrid  that  a  drop  falling  into  the  eye  will  nearly  blind  it 
— an  accident  which  is  said  to  have  happened  to  sailors  sent  on  shore 
to  cut  fuel.  Even  the  smoke  of  the  burning  wood  is  dangerous. 


LVI.  THE  WHITE  OAK.* 

'•'Not  a  prince 

In  all  that  proud  old  world  beyond  the  deep 
E'er  wore  his  crown  as  loftily  as  he 
Wears  the  green  coronal  of  leaves  with  which 
Thy  hand  hath  graced  him.''1 

BRYANT. 

Description. — A  large  proportion  of  our  forest  trees  are 
Oaks.  Also  in  the  open  fields  the  Oaks  stand  solitary,  in 
alternation  with  Elms  and  Maples,  the  charm  of  every  rural 
scene.  The  White  Oak  will  be  our  special  theme  to-day.  Its 
flowers  appear  in  May,  soon  after  the  expanding  leaves.  The 


*  The  Oak,  Pine,  etc.,  are  fertilized  by  the  wind.  It  is  curious  to  notice,  in  con- 
trast with  the  insect-fertilized  plants  we  have  considered,  the  new  floral  adaptations 
which  here  exist.  The  long,  lightly-hung,  pendulous  catkins  are  set  in  motion  by  the 
merest  breath  of  air.  The  blossoms  appear,  too,  in  the  early  season  when  gales  are 
most  numerous  and  boisterous. 


208  THE    WHITE   OAK. 

blossoms  and  fruit  of  any  Oak  will,  however,  serve  for  this 


Analysis  (generic). — The  Oaks  put  forth  two  kinds  of 
flowers  on  the  same  tree.     The  sterile  or  staminate  (  $  )  are 


Fia.  LVL— Quercus  alba. 

disposed  in  long,  slender,  pendulous  clusters  called  aments 
or  catkins,  several  from  one  bud.  They  consist  merely  of  a 
5-8-lobed  calyx  with  5-8  stamens.  The  fertile  or  pistillate 
( $ )  are  solitary,  or  few  together — each  an  ovary  with  3 
stigmas  invested  with  a  scaly  involucre.  The  ovary  is 
3-celled,,  with  2  pendulous,  anatropous  ovules  in  each  cell. 


QUERCUS. 


209 


But  in  ripening,  only  1  of  the  6  ovules  becomes  a  seed.  By 
its  fruit — the  acorn,  the  Oaks  are  universally  known.  It  is, 
by  suppression,  a  1-seeded  nut  partly  immersed 
in  a  scaly,  cup-form  involucre.  On  dissection, 
we  find  in  the  seed  an  embryo  with  2  massive 
cotyledons,  the  short  radicle  pointing  upward, 
destitute  of  albumen. 

Germination.    Under  the  Oaks  at  the  time 
of  flowering,  the  student  will  find  acorns  of  the 
preceding  year  in  all  stages  of  germination  as 
shown  in  the  cuts.     The  swelled  co- 
tyledons (which  are  but  transformed 
leaves)    cannot    extricate    themselves 
from  the  shell,  but  burst  it  and  thrust 
forth  their  petioles  with  the  radicle 
and  plumule  between  them,  the 
former  to  grow  downward,  the 
latter  upward. 

The    Name    of    this  noble 
genus  is  the  classic  Latin 
one  —  Quercus.  *     In    the 
United  States  there  grow 
as  many  as  25  species,  and 
at  least  6   or   8   in   every 
vicinity.    The  practiced 
eye       will       distin- 
guish them  by  their 
tree-forms  alone.  All 
may  know  them  by 
the  forms    of    their 
leaves  (Appendix).  To  identify  them  by  verbal  description  is 


Acorn  (seed  of  Quercvs  palus- 
tris)  germinating:  6,section  show- 
ing the  radicle  (r)  which  is  to  be- 
come the  root,  and  the  two  cotyledons  (c)  which  are 
to  nourish  it;  7,  the  radicle  r,  descending;  8  and  9,  the 
radicle  r,  descending,  and  the  plumule  ( p)  ascending. 


*  The  Oak  has  been  identified  with  man's  history  from  the  earliest  ages.  Its  groves 
nave  been  held  sacred  alike  by  Jews  (Gen.  xxi,  33),  Greeks,  Romans  and  Celts.    The 


210 


THE    WHITE    OAK. 


often  difficult,  and  a  test  of  scholarship.    (See  Bot.  and  Flor., 

p.  305.) 
SPECIFIC  CHAEACTERS  of  the  White  Oak  ( Q.  alba  L.).  This 

tree  is  known  at  sight  among  its  compeers  by  its  light  ash- 
colored  bark  breaking  into  square 
loose  flakes  on  the  surface.  The 
leaves  on  short  petioles  are  deeply 
divided  into  obtuse  segments,  3  or  4 
on  each  side,  none  angular,  all 
bounded  by  flowing  outlines.  From 
a  bright  green  they  change  to  violet 
and  purple  in  Autumn,  and  many 
are  persistent.  A  new  feature  in 
venation  is  here  to  be  noticed.  The 
leaves  are  straight-veined — the  vein- 
lets  continue  straight  through  the 
blade  to  the  margin.  Compare  the 
leaf  of  Beech,  Chestnut ;  also  of  the 
Apple.  The  stipules  are  fugacious. 
The  Acorn  ripens  in  the  Autumn  following  its  flower  ;  is 

nearly  sessile,  1'  long,  an  ovoid  nut  one-third  immersed  in  a 

hemispherical  cup.     The  seed  is  well-flavored,  and  eaten  by 

man  as  well  as  beast.* 


Wood  of  Oak,  greatly  magni- 
fied :  «,  medullary  rays ;  b, wood 
cells  ;  c,  ducts. 


Oak  was  consecrated  to  Jupiter,  even  to  a  proverb  ;  and  the  Druids  (drus,  an  Oak) 
are  supposed  to  have  been  named  from  their  superstitious  regard  for  the  Oak  and  the 
Mistletoe  which  grew  upon  it.  The  Greeks  adopted  it  as  the  emblem  of  hospitality. 
In  Rome,  to  obtain  a  "  crown  of  Oak,"  it  was  necessary  to  be  a  citizen,  to  slay  an 
enemy,  to  save  the  life  of  a  Roman,  or  to  reconquer  a  field  of  battle.— The  Oak  is, 
however,  peculiarly  a  British  tree,  associated  with  English  naval  victories— with  the 
"  Walls  of  Old  England  "  and  the  "  hearts  of  Oak  "  that  have  beaten  bravely  within 
them.  Many  an  Oak  has  become  historic ;  like  the  Oak  of  Tonvood,  within  whose 
hollow  slept  the  famous  Wm.  Wallace ;  the  Royal  Oak  that  sheltered  the  fugitive 
Charles  after  the  battle  of  Worcester  ;  Pope's  Oak  in  Windsor  Forest ;  while  in  this 
country  we  recall  the  Charter  Oak  of  Hartford. 

*  Some  species  of  Oak,  as  Red  Oak  (Q.  rubrd),  Pin  Oak  ( Q.  palustris)  are  biennial- 
fruited  ;  i.  e.,  they  require  2  years  from  flowering  for  their  acorns  to  ripen. 

In  England,  whose  Oak  forests  are  now  valued  for  timber,  some  centuries  ago  the 
Saxons  valued  them  only  for  their  acorns,  or  most,  on  which  their  swine  were  fat> 


QUEKCUS. 


211 


6,  young  branchlet  of  Q.  alba,  with  aments,  &c.  2,  a  staminate  ( 3 )  flower  ;  3,  the 
same  ;  4,  a  pistillate  ( ?  )  flower  with  5  stigmas  ;  5,  vertical  section  of  the  same  ;  6, 
branchlet  with  full-grown  leaves  and  mature  fruit ;  7,  section  of  the  the  acorn  show- 
ing the  two  thick  cotyledons  and  embryo  at  top  ;  8,  acorns  of  Q.  robur. 


212 


THE    WHITE    OAK. 


ORGAN. 

Zife,  7/abit,  dumber,  Place,  A'ind,  Construction,  .Form, 
Placentation,  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

Tree  deciduous,  in  forests,  2ft.   diam.,  60ft.  high. 

Boot,  L.K. 

Axial,  branching,  extensive. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Arboreous,  exogenous,  erect,  trunk  terete. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Decid.,  cond.,  alt.  ,  straight-veined,  lane.,  serr.,  acum. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Axillary,  $  long  catkins,  ?  3  together  in  a  burr. 

Flower,  N.C. 

6-parted,  apetalous,  monoecious,  small. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Cup-form,  6-parted,  cream-greenish. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Persist.,  6,  $  adherent,  erect. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

None. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

None. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

8-%0,jttiform,  showy,  erect. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

Oval,  longitudinal,  %-celled,  versatile. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

3,  united  at  base,  short. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

3,  dub-shaped  (9  in  the  involucre). 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

3-celled,  6-ovuled,  ovoid,  or  plano-convex. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

Mostly  3  nuts  in  a  burr  (prickly  involucre). 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

1,  anatropous,  white,  cotyledous,  farinaceous. 

LOCALITY.—  Chesterfield,  N.  H.,  woods.    (Date),  May  19,  1836. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  APETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
OBDEB.—  CUPUUFEB.E,  or  MASTWOBTS. 
NAME.  —  Latin,  Castanea  vesca  Linn. 

—English,  Chestnut. 
REMABKS.—  Fruit  sweet  and  nutritious,  falling  in  October.     Timber  light, 
very  durable. 

tened.  The  right  of  feeding  hogs  in  the  woods,  called  pannage,  became  a  valuable 
kind  of  property.  With  this  right  Monasteries  were  endowed,  and  it  often  formed 
part  of  the  dowry  of  the  king's  daughters.  To  regulate  and  secure  these  rights,  rigid 
laws  were  enacted  and  records  kept.  When  William  the  Conqueror  converted  the 
New  Forest  into  a  hunting-ground,  the  anger  of  the  people  was  due  to  the  loss  of  food 
for  their  droves  of  swine. 


QUERCUS.  213 

In  this  connection,  let  the  student  analyze  the  Chestnut 
Tree,  the  Beech,  or  the  Hazel.  A  sample  tablet  is  annexed. 

Classification. — The  order  CUPULIFEE^: — the  Mast- 
worts — is  thus  limited  to 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  very  deciduous  stipules. 

Leaves  alternate,  simple,  straight-veined. 

Flowers  apetalous,  monoecious,  the  $  in  catkins. 

Ovary  adherent,  with  all  but  one  cell  and  ovule  abortive. 

Fruit  a  nut,  one  or  more  together  in  a  cup  or  sack. 

Seed  one,  filled  by  the  embryo  with  its  massive  cotyledons. 

Albumen  none. 

The  Mastworts  number  8  genera  and  250  species.  Among  them 
are  the  Oaks,  Beech,*  Chestnut,  Iron- wood,  Hazel,  etc.,  important  for 
their  timber  and  fruit. 

Chestnuts  are  the  fruit  of  Castdnea  vesca.\  The  American  variety 
is  smaller  and  sweeter  than  the  Spanish  Chestnut  of  Europe.  Beech- 
nuts, the  fruit  of  our  Fagusferruginea,  are  very  sweet  and  nutritious. 
Filberts,  the  fruit  of  the  Hazel  (Cdrylus),  come  from  Europe.  Our  own 
Hazel-nut  is  nearly  as  good.  The  acorns  of  the  White  Oak  and  Chest- 
nut Oak  (Q.  Prinos)  are  eatable. 

Nutgalls  are  produced  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  Oaks  by  the  punc- 
ture of  insects  depositing  their  eggs.  The  nutgalls  of  commerce  used 
in  making  ink,  etc. ,  come  from  Asia  Minor.  They  abound  in  tannic 
acid,  a  principle  also  found  in  the  bark  of  some  species  of  Oak  used  in 
tanning  leather. 

The  timber  especially  of  the  Live  Oak  (Q.  wrens),  White  Oak,  and 
English  Oak  (Q.  robur),  is  of  great  value  in  shipbuilding  and  all 

*  To  the  German  name  of  the  Beech  (buch)  we  owe  our  English  word  book,  the 
sides  of  thick  books  having  formerly  been  made  of  beech  boards. 

No  tree  of  the  forest  has  its  tint  of  trunk  more  varied  by  mosses,  lichens  and  hand- 
some kinds  of  fungus  that  always  diversify  its  dark -gray  bark.  Virgil  loved  a  Beech- 
tree  for  the  abundant  shadow  it  gave  him,  and  Gray  wandered  to  be  soothed  among 
the  famous  Burnham  Beeches,  which  he  says  "  are  always  dreaming  out  their  old  stories 
to  the  winds." 

t  In  parts  of  Europe  the  Chestnut  is  highly  valued  as  an  article  of  food,  and  the 
tree  is  extensively  grown  for  this  product  alone.    Many  centuries  ago  Martial  said  : 
"  For  Chestnuts  roasted  by  a  gentle  heat 
No  city  can  the  learned  Naples  beat." 

The  Chestnut  is  yet  roasted  daily  there  as  well  as  in  many  other  Italian  cities  ;  and 
similar  scenes  are  enacted  on  our  own  street-corner^.  In  the  south  of  France  it  forms 
the  common  vegetable  diet  of  the  peasantry. 


214:  THE   WHITE   OAK. 

mechanic  arts  where  toughness,  strength,  and  durability  are  requisite. 
The  wood  of  Chestnut  is  eminently  durable  ;  that  of  Beech,  Ironwood 
(Carpinus)  and  Liver- wood  (Ostrya),  is  hard  and  compact,  and  therefore 
serviceable  for  joiners'  tools. 

LVII.    THE  WHITE   PINE. 

Description. — The  White  Pine  grows  in  any  soil  where 
it  is  planted ;  but  its  native  forests  and  groves  are  gen- 
erally associated  with  a  dry  sandy  loam.  Our  Pilgrim 
Fathers  found  here  one  continuous  forest  waving  with 
Pines,  where  now  are  cities,  towns  and  plantations.  On 
the  plains  of  Dartmouth  and  Saratoga  once  towered  majes- 
tic Pines  more  than  200  feet.  To-day,  on  the  Sierra  Moun- 
tains, the  Lambert  Pines  300  feet  in  height  lift  their  im- 
perial heads. 

Analysis  (generic).  The  Leaves  of  the  Pines  are  truly 
evergreen,  persisting  in  all  their  verdure  through  the  Winter 
until  those  of  the  next  season  are  full  grown.  Their  form 
is  as  characteristic  as  that  of  the  cones.  They  are  acerous  or 
needle-shaped,  angular,  collected  in  little  fascAcles  (bundles) 
of  2s,  3s,  or  5s,  bound  together  by  a  sheathing  bract  at  the 
base.  In  2s  they  are  semi-terete  ;  in  3s  and  5s  triangular, 
with  serrulate  edges. 

The  Flowers  come  with  the  new  leaves.  They  are  of 
two  kinds,  both  generally  found  on  the  same  tree,  i.  e., 
monoecious.  The  sterile  ( $ )  flowers  are  in  small,  oblong, 
dense,  reddish  aments  clustered  around  the  base  of  the  new 
shoots.  Each  ament  is  involucrate  with  a  few  scales,  and 
consists  of  stamens  alone.  The  anthers  are  2-celled  and 
contain  triple  pollen  grains.  The  fertile  (?)  aments  are  lat- 
eral, consisting  of  spirally  imbricated  scales  (open  carpels) 
each  bearing  at  its  base  2  ovules  turned  downward,  although 
not  inverted  on  their  stalks  (orthotropous). 


PIKUS. 


215 


The  J^rmt  is  not  matured  until  the  second  year  after  its 
flowers  (biennial).  It  is  then  a  cone  formed  of  the  grown 
and  hardened  fertile  ament,  with  its  scales  generally  thick- 


FIG.  LVII.— Pinus  Strobus,  a  young  tree  and  grove. 

ened  at  the  edge,  at  last  relaxed  and  spreading,  freeing  the 
2-winged  seeds  nurtured  in  the  lap  of  each.  The  student 
will  not  fail  to  notice  the  total  absence  of  a  style  or  stigma ; 


216 


THE    WHITE    PIKE. 


Pinus  Strobus  :  1,  a  branchlet  with  staminate  flowers ;  2,  branchlet  with  pistillate 
flowers  ;  3,  a  carpellary  scale  with  its  bract ;  4,  the  same  seen  from  within,  with  its 
2  ovules  turned  downward  ;  5,  an  anther ;  6,  a  grain  of  pollen  (triple) ;  7,  a  ripe  cone 
with  its  scales  relaxed. 

neither  is  there  any  proper  ovary  or  seed-vessel.  The  car- 
pellary scales  which  should  invest  the  ovules  and  seeds,  only 
subtend  them  ;  hence  they  are  truly  naked.*  The  embryo, 
resting  in  oily  albumen,  has  3-12  cotyledons. 

*  Fertilization  is  effected  by  the  direct  application  of  the  pollen  to  the  ovule 
instead  of  to  an  intervening  stigma.  The  wind  is  the  agent  for  conveying  the  pollen 
to  its  place.  (See  Note,  p.  31.)  There  is  therefore  no  need  of  attracting  insects  by  bril- 
liant colors  and  pleasing  perfumes ;  hence  the  flowers  are  inconspicuous  and  inodorous. 


PINUS.  217 

The  Name  of  this  grand  and  useful  genus  is  the  ancient 
Latin  term — Pinus,  from  the  Celtic  pin  or  pen,  a  rock  or 
mountain.  The  White  Pine,  that  species  to  which  our 
figures  chiefly  refer,  is  Pinus  Strobus — the  "Weymouth 
Pine  "  of  the  English  parks.  This  is  the  tallest  of  all  our 
forest  trees,  many  with  a  diameter  of  4  or  5  feet,  rising  to 
100  and  140  feet.  The  trunks  perfectly  straight,  erect,  free 
from  limbs,  extend  f  their  whole  height,  affording  a  strong, 
soft,  light,  and  durable  timber,  more  extensively  used  in 
architecture  than  any  other  kind. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTER. — The  ffioot  of  P.  Strobus  pene- 
trates the  soil  but  2  or  3  feet,  and  is  quickly  dissolved  into 
irregular  branches  and  branchlets,  filling  a  space  of  30  to  40 
feet  diameter.* 

The  2*runfc  is  cylindric,  erect,  with  a  smooth  bark  in  trees 
less  than  a  foot  in  diameter  and  in  old  forest  trees  regularly 
broken  into  long  narrow  plates.  The  branches  are  given  off 
in  whorls  and  at  nearly  right  angles,  one  new  whorl  each 
year.  In  forests,  all  but  the  upper  branches  soon  perish, 
and  these  stretching  out  over  the  other  trees  render  the 
Pines  conspicuous  in  the  distant  landscape. 

The  leaves  are  in  fascicles  of  5s,  and  4'  in  length. 

The  Cones,  nearly  6'  long  when  ripe,  have  scales  slightly 
if  at  all  thickened  at  their  edges,  thus  quite  unlike  the  other 
Pines.  Compare  this  with — 

P.  rigida,  the  Pitch  Pine,  which  has  its  leaves  in  3s,  cones 
ovoid,  with  scales  thick-edged  and  clawed  at  the  end,  and 
bark  rough  and  black,  a  tree  30  or  more  feet  high. 

P.  resinosa,  Red  Pine,  has  leaves  in  2s,  cones  ovoid-conical, 

*  The  roots  of  the  White  Pine  are  almost  incorruptible.  In  clearing  up  new  lands 
where  the  Pines  have  been  felled  or  blown  down,  the  stumps  with  their  roots  are 
often  taken  up  and  used  in  making  a  fence,  by  setting  the  under  surface  of  the  roots 
to  form  the  outer  or  the  finished  side.  Fences  so  made  exhibit,  after  a  hundred 
years,  few  signs  of  decay.— Emerson. 
10 


218  THE    HEMLOCK. 

the  scales  not  claw-tipped,  bark  rather  smooth,  tree  50-80 
feet  high ;  both  species  native  northward. 

P.  palustris,  Long-leaved  Pine,  in  the  lowland  forests  of 
the  South,  has  leaves  in  3s,  and  10-15'  long  and  cones  of 
nearly  equal  length. 

LVIII.   THE   HEMLOCK. 

Description. — The  Hemlock  grows  in  the  forests  of  all 
the  States  west  to  Oregon,  especially  loving  a  granitic  soil ; 
and  in  Canada  and  New  England,  the  tree  and  its  products 
are  so  common  that  Hemlock  is  almost  a  household  word. ' 
Mowers  and  fruit  (last  year's  cones)  may  be  found  in  May.* 

Analysis. — GENERIC  CHARACTERS. — The  leaves  are  sol- 
itary (not  fascicled),  short,  of  one  kind,  and  persistent  two 
years.  The  trunks  are  of  that  class  called  excurrent — run- 
ning distinct  through  to  the  summit  of  the  pyramidal  head. 
Here  also  we  have  flowers  of  two  kinds  (monoecious)^  both  in 
aments,  and  on  the  same  tree.  Mark  their  situation,  not  on 
the  new  shoots,  as  in  the  Pines,  but  on  the  branchlets  of  the 
preceding  year  ;  the  $  aments  in  the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves  ; 
the  ?  terminal.  The  cones  mature  in  the  Autumn  of  the 
first  year.  Their  scales  are  thin-edged,  never  embossed  nor 
clawed,  each  2-seeded,  and  subtended  by  a  bract. 

The  Name  given  to  the  genus  possessing  these  traits  is 
Abies — the  ancient  Latin  for  Spruce.  It  comprises  the 
Spruces,  Firs,  and  Hemlocks,  evergreen,  resinous  trees,  like 
the  Pines  except  in  the  above  obvious  distinctions. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS.— The  Hemlock  when  young  has  a 
peculiar  grace  both  of  form  and  foliage.  With  age,  it 
becomes  rugged  and  unsightly.  In  forests,  the  trunk  is 


*  Specimens  of  our  native  Spruce  or  Fir,  or  of  the  Norway  Spruce,  so  common 
in  our  parks  and  door-yards,  will  answer  for  this  study. 


ABIES. 


219 


often  sixty  feet  high,  beset  above  with  knots  among  its 
scragged  branches.  The  leaves  are  short-linear,  silvery 
beneath,  on  delicate  petioles,  spirally  arranged,  yet  so 


PIG.  LVTII.— Abies  Canade"nsis  :  1,  a  branch  with  fertile  flowers  at  $  ,  and  sterile 
at  $  ;  2,  a  scale,  with  its  short  bract ;  3,  a  cluster  of  £  flowers  (stamens) ;  4,  a  scale 
with  its  2  perfected,  winged  seeds,  seen  from  within. 

inclined  to  a  horizontal  position  as  to  appear  2-ranked  on 
the  slender  spray.     The  $  aments  are  very  small,  scarcely 


220 


THE   HEMLOCK. 


2"  long,  each  with  10-20  anthers.  The  pollen  grains  are 
single.  The  $  aments  are  terminal,  ovoid,  3"  long,  composed 
of  imbricated  green  scales  (carpels).  The  fruit  is  an  oblong 
brown  cone  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  pendant  on  the  ends 
of  the  slender  branchlets.  The  scales  are  about  20,  rounded, 
2-seeded.  The  seeds  are  winged,  naked  as  in  the  Pines. 
This  is  Abies  Canadensis. 

The  Order. — From  these  examples  the  student  will 
apprehend  the  nature  of  the  CONIFERJE  (Conifers)  or  Cone- 
bearers. 

Trees  and  shrubs  with  resinous  juice. 

Leaves  evergreen,  awl-shaped  or  needle-shaped. 

Flowers  in  aments,  monoecious,  without  calyx  or  corolla. 

Ovary  an  open  scale  2-ovuled,  with  no  stigma. 

Seeds  with  pericarp,  truly  naked. 

Classification. — With  their  wood  growing  by  external 
layers  and  the  embryo  of  2  or  more  cotyledons,  the 

Coniferae  are  Exogens.  But 
they  differ  from  other  Exo- 
gens in  having  no  stigma, 
and  open  carpels  never  in- 
dosing  the  naked  seeds. 
Hence  the  division  of  the 
Exogens  into  two  classes 
— the  Gymnosperms  (gym- 
nos,  naked,  sperma,  seeds), 
including  the  Coniferse,  and 
the  Angiosperms  (angios,  a 
vessel,  and  sperma),  includ- 
ing all  other  Exogens. 


5,  Pitted  wood-cells  of  Pine  greatly  mag- 
nified ;  m,  medullary  rays. 


The  Conifers.  —  Here  are 
associated  20  genera  and  100 
species,  "  sons  of  the  forest  and  forest  kings,  gigantic  in  size,  noble  in 
aspect,  robust  in  constitution."  They  inhabit  all  climates,  but  are  most 


ABIES.  221 

abundant  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone.    Timber  and  turpentine  are 
their  special  products.* 

The  Douglass  Fir  (Abies  Dougldssii)  of  Oregon,  and  the  Red  wood 
(Sequoya  sempermrens)  of  California,  are  frequently  12  feet  in  diameter 
and  200  feet  high.  The  Lambert  Pine  (P.  Lambertidna)  of  California, 
a  tree  of  faultless  symmetry,  is  often  12  feet  in  diameter  and  300  feet 


View  in  Calaveras. 


high.    But  over  all  towers  the  Giant 
Cedar  of  the  Sierras  (Sequoya  gigdn- 

tea).      One  grove  in  Calaveras   County  contains   90  "scMJallecT"  Big 

350  in  altitude  !  f 


h6  Ji°°d  °f  the/!nes'  Cedars'  and  of  the  C^nifeiTgenerally,  is  remarkably  dis- 


,  - 

b  dlskS  WWch  Under  the  microscope  appear  like  pearl, 

L  th,  f   SMa   ,7-<;0d"Ce11-    ThiS  f°rm'  Called  **«*  tis*ue<  has  often  been  fleeted 
i  the  fossils  of  bituminous  coal,  thus  revealing  the  origin  of  that  useful  mineral. 

diffirnH?  ^    r6  P??eCt  8ymmetl7  of  these  ^antic  trees  that  the  spectator  finds  it 
;ahze  their  enormous  proportions.    "  If,"  says  Whitney,  "one  could  be 


THE    HEMLOCK. 


ORGAN. 

Lite,  7/abit,  dumber,  Place,  A'ind,  Construction,  .Form, 
Placentation,/Slze,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

A  tree  of  many  years  growth,  50  feet  high,  evergreen. 

Root,  L.K. 

Not  observed.                                                   [branches. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

An  erect,  short,  cylindrical  trunk,  excurrent,  with  many 

Leaves,  L.P.C.P.S.Q. 

©,  spiral,  acerous,  sharp,  subsessile,  sub-k-sided,  7". 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

In  cone-shaped  aments,  axillary  and  terminal. 

Flower,  N.C. 

Monoecious,  naked. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

None.                                               \lary  and  terminal. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

6  The  sterile  flowers  in  small,  ovoid,  red  aments,  axil- 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

None.                                                    [with  green  scales. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

?  The  fertile  flowers  in  a  cylindrical,  terminal  ament, 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

Numerous,  crowded,  with  short  filaments. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

2-celled,  opening  lengthwise,  pollen  grains  triple. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

None. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

None.                     [imbricated,  subtending  2  erect  ovules. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Carpettary  scales  rounded,  open,  thin-edged,  spirally 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

A  cylindric,  pendent  cone,  cinnamon-colored,  &  long. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

2,  orthotropous,  flatfish,  light-brown,  winged. 

LOCALITY.—  In  Central  Park,  New  York.    (Date)  April,  1878. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  GYMNOSPERMOUS  EXOGENS. 
ORDER.—  CONIFERS,  THE  CONIFERS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Allies  excelsis. 

—  English,  Norway  Spruce. 
REMARKS.—  Tree  pyramidal  in  its  form. 

transported  to  Washington  and  placed  beside  the  Capitol,  its  summit  towering  far 
above  the  statue  which  surmounts  the  dome  of  the  noble  structure,  the  effect  would 
be  overwhelming."  Various  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  age  of  the  Big  Trees 
of  the  Calaveras  Grove,  and  it  has  been  poetically  asserted  that  they  were  in  their 
prime  when  Noah  built  the  Ark,  and  may  have  been  "contemporary  with  the  crea- 
tion of  Man."  The  geologists  of  the  California  survey  fixed  the  age  of  one  tree  that 
was  cut  down  at  1300  years.  (We  counted  1362  layers.)  Six  feet  from  the  ground  it 
was  23  feet  in  diameter  inside  the  bark  (that  being  about  15  inches  thick). 


SABAL   PALMETTO.  223 

Timber  of  excellent  quality  is  afforded  by  all  these  species.  That 
of  the  Redwood,  as  well  as  most  of  the  Cedars,  is  almost  indestructi- 
ble. Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  Virginiana)  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
lead  pencils.  The  Temple  of  Solomon  was  built  of  the  Cedars  of  Leb- 
anon (Gedrus  Libdni).  The  Southern  Pine  is  heavy  and  fragrant  with 
resin,  affording  excellent  timber  for  floors.  The  Norfolk  Island  Pine 
(Eutassa  excelsa)  is  celebrated  for  its  timber  and  for  its  stately  beauty. 

Turpentine  is  distilled  from  the  pitch  which  flows  from  the  Southern 
Pine  ;  resin  is  the  residuum  after  distillation.  Burgundy  pitch  is 
obtained  from  P.  sylvestris  of  Europe.  Canada  balsam  flows  from  the 
' '  blisters  "  in  the  bark  of  our  beautiful  Abies  balsdmea. 

Tannic  acid  abounds  in  the  bark  of  the  Hemlock  ;  hence  it  is,  like 
the  Oak,  extensively  used  in  tanning  leather. 

The  Yew  tree  (Taxus)  figures  in  history  as  the  favorite  wood  for 
making  bows,  once  the  formidable  weapon  of  the  English  yeoman. 
Our  Yew  is  a  straggling  shrub,  never  attaining  the  dimensions  of  a 
tree. 

LIX.  THE   PALMETTO.* 

Description. — In  the  forests  that  skirt  the  sandy  coasts 
of  the  Southern  States,  the  renowned  Palmetto  reigns.  It 
is  a  tree  arising  25  to  40  feet,  with  trunk  erect,  simple, 
10-20'  in  diameter,  all  developed  from  one  terminal  bud. 
From  this  bud,  in  early  Spring,  a  new  set  of  leaves  is  an- 
nually produced  above  the  old  before  they  fall.  Hence  the 
tree  is  evergreen. 

Analysis. — The  Stem  of  the  Palmetto  exhibits  new 
features  especially  worthy  of  study.  Outside  it  is  rugged  in 
aspect,  especially  above,  where  it  is  beset  with  the  split  bases 
of  former  leaf-stalks.  The  trunks  of  other  forest  trees  are 
largest  at  the  base,  diminishing  upward.  Not  so  with  the 
Palmetto.  Its  trunk  either  continues  of  uniform  size,  or 
perceptibly  enlarges  toward  the  summit,  there  attaining  its 

*  The  Palmetto  is  the  emblem  of  South  Carolina.  The  massive  terminal  bud, 
consisting  of  numerous  undeveloped  leaves,  is  much  prized  as  a  vegetable,  whence 


224: 


THE    PALMETTO. 


largest  diameter.    For  these  and  other  peculiarities,  the  stem 
of  the  Palm  is  called  a  caudex. 


FIG.  LIX.-Sabal  Pal- 
metto. From  a  photo- 
graph. Scene  in  Florida, 
showing  Fort  Matanzas  in 
the  distance. 


The  internal  struc- 
ture, as  seen  in  sections, 
may  now  be  compared  with  that  of  Apple  tree,  Elm,  Pine, 
and  other  Exogenous  trees  (p.  109).     The  contrast  is  great. 


the  tree  is  called  the  Cahhage  Palmetto.  To  secure  the  bud,  however,  the  entire  tree 
has  to  he  sacrificed.  The  wood  does  not  splinter  easily,  and,  on  that  account,  was 
employed  in  building  Fort  Moultrie  in  the  Revolutionary  War  (Barnes's  History  of 
the  United  States,  p.  170).  Blocks  from  the  softer  portions  of  the  trunk  are  used  in 
the  South  as  a  substitute  for  scrubbing  brushes.  The  larger  leaves  serve  for  thatch- 
ing and  are  woven  into  baskets  or  mats,  while  the  smaller  are  made  into  hats  and 
bonnets. 


SABAL    PALMETTO. 


225 


In  Exogens,  the  bark,  wood  and  pith  are  clearly  defined. 
In  Palmetto,  all  these  are  commingled ;  no  separable  bark, 
no  woody  layers,  no  medullary  rays.  The  wood  exists  in 
threads  or  fibers  extending  lengthwise,  traceable  from  the 
bases  of  the  petioles  down  through  the  soft  pith  or  cellular 
tissue,  at  length  turning  outward  and  ending  in  or  at  the 
surface  where  the  bark  should  be.  The  composition  of 
these  wood-fibers  or  bun- 
dles may  be  understood 
from  the  cut,  which 
represents  the  shaving  of 
a  Rattan  magnified  100 
diameters.  In  a  single 
fiber  there  are  annular 
cells,  spiral  vessels,  dot- 
ted ducts,  and  wood-cells, 
all  lying  in  the  cellular 
tissue,  a,  a.* 

The  Z/eaves  are  com- 
paratively few  and  im- 
mense, f  7-12  feet  in 
length,  including  the 
smooth,  channeled  peti- 
ole. The  blade  is  typi- 
cally fan-shaped  (flabelliform),with  the  border  palmately  cleft 
into  many  segments,  in  vernation  plicate,  and  parallel-veined. 


Various  kinds  of  vessels  in  a  wood-fiber  of 
Bamboo  or  Rattan  :  a,  cells  of  parenchyma  ;  b, 
annular  cells  ;  c,  spiral  vessels  ;  d,  porous  duct ; 
e,  wood-cells. 


*  Woody  stems,  whether  exogenous  or  endogenous,  are  chiefly  composed  of  the  5 
classes  of  cells  exhibited  in  the  cut.  The  difference  lies  in  their  arrangement.  The 
study  of  the  vegetable  cell,  in  all  its  varieties,  is  of  great  interest  and  importance,  but 
belongs  to  a  higher  department  of  Botany  than  is  admissible  in  this  work.  See  Phy- 
siological Botany,  in  the  Class  Book,  p.  130. 

t  Much  has  been  written  of  the  beauty  of  the  Tropical  Palm,  decorated  with  its 
waving  crown.  But  the  Eastern  traveler  finds  a  forest  of  Date  Palms,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  far  less  imposing  than  our  own  groves  of  Oak,  Birch  and  Maple.  Below 
is  only  a  vista  of  naked,  monotonous  columns,  and  above  a  scanty  foliage  through 
which  the  rays  of  the  sun  pour  in  undiminished  intensity. 


226 


THE    PALMETTO. 


The  Flowers,  open  in  June,  are  perfect,  sessile,  on  a 
long  branching  spadix  with  bracts  or  a  double  spathe  at  each 
joint.  They  have  a  double  perianth,  of  3  sepals  and  3  petals, 

6  stamens,  and  a 
triple  pistil  which 
in  fruit  becomes 
a  single  1-seeded, 
round  drupe,  like  a 
date. 

The  Name. — 
Scibal  Palmetto  is 
the  only  Palm  in 
the  United  States 
which  attains  the 
dimensions  of  a 
tree.  Two  other 
species  of  this  ge- 
nus, the  Dwarf  and 
the  Saw  Palmetto, 
form  dense  thick- 
ets in  the  wilds  of 
the  South.  They 
are  mere  shrubs, 
with  caudex  pros- 
trate or  creeping. 
The  Blue  Palmetto, 
with  caudex  2  or  3 
feet  long,  erect  or 
prostrate,  has  polygamous  [some  $ ,  some  ? ,  and  some 
(perfect)  £  ]  yellowish  flowers,  and  is  assigned  to  another 
genus — Chamc&rops  Hystrix.  We  have  no  other  Palms. 

The  Cocoanut  is  a  fruit  of  similar  construction,  and  its 
seed  is,  perhaps,  the  largest  of  all  seeds.     Let  it  be  analyzed 


1,  Inflorescence  of  Chamaerops  humilis,  in  its  spathe ; 
2,  a  branch  of  the  same  with  the  fruit  ripening ;  3,  a 
sterile  6  flower  ;  4,  a  fertile  ?  flower  ;  5,  a  ripe  fruit ; 
6,  a  section  of  another  variety,  showing  the  seed ;  7, 
section  of  seed  showing  the  embryo.  (From  Lindley.) 


SABAL    PALMETTO. 


227 


in  this  connection.  Lake  other  drupes,  this  also  has  two 
coats,  the  outer  of  loose,  woody,  brown  fibers,  the  inner  a 
shell  of  bone.  At  the  apex  of  the  shell  are  3  apertures — the 
scars  of  the  stigmas.  Within  the  shell  is  only  1  cell  and  1 
seed,  although  the  ovary  was  3-celled  and  3-ovuled.  The 
cut  (11)  shows  a  section  of  the  seed — the  white,  fibrous,  oily 
albumen  with  a  cavity  which  contained  the  milk — and  at  e, 
the  embryo,  1-cotyledoned,  in  a  separate,  smaller  cavity  ; 


12 


11 

11,  section  of  the  seed  of  a  Cocoa- 
nut  ;  «,  the  embryo  ;  12,  Cocoa-nut 
germinating. 

(12)  shows  its  germination 
— the  growing  plumule  p, 
the  growing  radicle  r,  and 
the  enlarged  cotyledon  c, 
partly  filling  the  cavity. 

Classification  (ordinal). — The  order  PALMACE^:  is  esti- 
mated at  seventy-three  genera  and  four  hundred  species. 
Nearly  all  are  natives  of  the  Torrid  Zone  in  both  hemispheres. 
The  Palms  rank  among  the  noblest  of  the  Vegetable  King- 
dom, whether  we  regard  their  towering  stems,  their  mag- 
nificent leaves,  their  numberless  flowers,  or  their  valuable 
products.  The  trunks  of  some  attain  the  height  of  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  and  a  diameter  of  five  feet. 

Calamus  Rudentum,  of  the  Malaccas,  grows  in  the  form  of  a  cable 
five  hundred  feet  in  length  dangling  from  trees  to  which  it  clings  by  the 


228  THE    PALMETTO. 

hooks  on  the  end  of  its  leaf-stalks.  The  Date  Palm  develops  two  hun- 
dred thousand  flowers  on  a  single  spadix.  Among  its  products  are 
starch,  sugar,  oil,  wax,  edible  fruits,  material  for  clothing,  building, 
paper-making,  and  fermented  liquors. 

The  Cocoanut  Palm  (cocos  nuciferd)  is  perhaps  put  to  a  greater  num- 
ber of  uses  than  any  other  tree  in  the  world.  Its  wood,  called  porcupine 
wood,  takes  a  beautiful  polish.  The  fibers  of  the  outer  covering  of  the 
fruit  are  very  durable,  and  are  manufactured  into  cordage,  matting, 
door-mats,  scrubbing  brushes,  etc.  The  inner  shell  is  made  into  water- 
dippers.  The  milk  contained  in  the  cavity  of  the  albumen  is  a  beverage 
as  delicious  as  the  albumen  is  wholesome.  The  nuts  by  pressure  yield 
the  rich  oil  of  cocoa.  From  the  wounded  spadix  flows  a  sweet  sap,  a 
quart  a  day  for  several  months.  If  boiled,  it  produces  sugar.  When 
fermented,  it  is  called  palm- wine  or  toddy,  and  when  distilled,  the  vile 
liquor,  arrack.  The  leaves  furnish  thatch  for  dwellings  and  material 
for  fences,  hats,  baskets  and  buckets,  and  even  paper  which  is  writ- 
ten upon  with  a  style.  Potash  in  abundance  is  obtained  from  the 
ashes.* 

The  Sago  Palm  (sagus  Rtimphii)  of  Malacca,  and  other  Palms,  afford 
the  starchy  food  called  Sago.  This  exists  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  the 
stem,  whence  it  is  washed  out  and  granulated.  A  single  tree  will  yield 
six  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds. 

The  Date  Palm  (Phcenix  dactylifera),  of  Northern  Africa,  supplies 
that  sweet  and  delicious  fruit,  the  date,  which  furnishes  the  tribes  of 
Fezzan  and  Barbary  nine-tenths  of  their  living. 

*  "After  an  abundant  repast,  the  traveller  inquires  of  his  Indian  host,  Who  in  this 
desert  country  furnishes  you  with  all  these  luxuries  ?  My  Cocoa-nut  tree,  is  the  reply. 
The  acidulous  drink  tasted  on  your  arrival  was  drawn  from  the  fruit  before  it  was 
ripe.  This  kernel,  so  delicate  in  flavor,  is  the  ripe  fruit.  This  milk  which  you  find 
so  agreeable  is  drawn  from  the  nut.  This  cabbage,  so  delicate  in  flavor,  is  the  top  of 
the  Cocoa-nut  tree— a  costly  dish,  however,  for  it  takes  the  life  of  the  tree.  This  wine 
is  Palm-wine,  drawn  from  the  thick  leaves  sheathing  the  flowers.  Exposed  to  the 
sun,  it  becomes  vinegar  ;  and  by  distillation  we  get  this  good  brandy  which  you  have 
tasted.  This  juice  also  supplies  the  sugar  for  these  sweetmeats.  Out  of  the  shell  of 
the  nut  we  make  these  vessels  and  utensils.  Nor  is  this  all.  This  habitation  itself  I 
owe  to  these  trees.  With  their  wood  my  cabin  is  constructed,  and  with  their  plaited 
leaves  it  is  thatched.  Made  into  an  umbrella  I  walk  under  their  shade.  My  clothing 
is  spun  from  their  leaf-fibers,  and  these  mats  so  generally  useful  are  made  from  them 
also.  This  sifter  was  ready-made  to  my  hands  in  the  axils  of  the  leaf-stalks.  With 
these  same  leaves  we  make  sails  for  our  ships,  and  for  caulking  them  nothing  is  so 
good  as  the  fibers  which  envelop  the  nut.  Of  this,  too,  we  make  all  sorts  of  strings, 
cables,  and  cordage.  Finally,  the  delicate  oil  which  has  seasoned  many  of  our  dishes 
and  that  which  burns  in  my  lamp,  is  expressed  from  the  fresh,  ripe  kernel." 


AEIS^MA.  229 

Rotang  (Calamus  Eudentum,  etc.),  growing  slender  and  to  great 
length,  affords  rattan  for  canes,  chair-bottoms,  etc. 

Ivory  Palm  (PhytelepUas)  of  the  Magdalena  River  region,  contains  in 
its  seeds  a  compact  albumen — the  vegetable  ivory  of  commerce. 

The  bruised  fruit  of  Elais  Guineensis  yields  the  palm-oil  which  is 
imported  from  Africa  in  immense  quantities,  for  soapmaking  and  other 
uses. 

Classification  (provincial). — In  a  higher  sense  the 
Order  of  the  Palms  represents  the  grand  province  of  the 
Endogens,  as  the  Koseworts,  the  Mastworts,  etc.,  represent 
the  Exogens.  These  two  grand  divisions  constitute  the 
subkingdom  Phenogamia  or  Flowering  Plants.  They  are 
severally  marked  by  the  following  five  characters,  which  we 
place  in  contrast  and  arrange  in  the  descending  order  of 
their  value,  that  is,  their  constancy : 

THE  EXOGENS.*  THE  ENDOGENS.* 

Embryo  with  2  or  more  cotyledons.  Embryo  with  one  cotyledon. 

Radicle  forming  an  axial  root.  Radicle  never  forming  axial  root. 

Stem  growing  by  accretions  exter-  Stem  growing  by  scattered  internal 

nal  to  the  wood.  wood-fibers  or  bundles. 

Flowers  4  or  5  (rarely  3)  parted.  Flowers  almost  always  3-parted. 

Leaves  very  generally  net-veined.  Lvs.  very  generally  parallel-veined. 


LX.  JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. 

Description. — The  voice  of  this  little  declaimer  is  heard, 
if  at  all,  in  the  flowery  month  of  May,  throughout  the  damp 
old  woods.  The  plant  stands  about  a  cubit  in  height,  with 
club  and  canopy  and  lurid  coloring — a  form  so  singular  that 
to  be  seen  is  to  be  remembered. 


*  To  apply  the  above  classification,  let  the  student  now  determine  the  Province  to 
which  the  foregoing  orders — any  or  all  of  them — belong.  And  generally,  it  will  here- 
after be  his  pleasure  to  view  all  plants  in  the  light  of  these  distinctions. 


230 


JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. 


FIG.  LX.— Arisaema  triphyllum  :  ft,  spadix  with  6  and  ?  flowers  ;  c,  flowers  enlarged  ; 
d,  spadix  with  6  flowers  ;  e,  with  ?  flowers  ;  h,  berries  ripe  ;  gt  berry  dissected. 


ARISJEMA.  231 

Analysis.  — The  Stem.  The  base  of  the  plant  is  enlarged 
into  a  kind  of  bulb,  which  being  solid  (not  made  up  of  scales) 
is  called  a  corm.  The  shape  of  this  bulb  has  given  to  it  the 
common  name  of  Indian  Turnip.  It  consists  of  starchy  mat- 
ter pervaded  by  a  fluid  fiercely  acrid  to  the  taste,  and  well  mer- 
iting the  name  "  Dragon-root."  *  Encircling  the  edge  of  the 
corm  is  a  row  of  fibrous  roots.  Evidently  the  corm  is  the  stem; 
there  is  no  other.  A  scape  and  2  leaf -stalks  arise  from  the 
corm,  the  former  inclosed  below  by  the  sheathing  bases  of  the 
stalks.  The  leaves  are  2,  trifoliate.  The  leaflets  are  often  as 
large  as  4'  by  6',  ovate,  inclining  to  rhombic,  entire,  acuminate. 
The  venation  is  pinnate  and  netted,  with  marginal  veins. 

Inflorescence.  The  scape  varies  in  height  from  6'  to 
2  feet,  but  is  never  so  high  as  the  leaves.  At  the  top  is  a 
club-shaped  inflorescence  called  spadix,  protected  by  a  lar^e 
bract  named  spathe.  The  spathe  is  convolute  below  and 
inflected  above,  colored  with  stripes  of  purple  within.  The 
spadix  is  naked  and  brown  above,  bearing  the  flowers  below. 

The  Flowers  are  monoecious  ( 8 ,  monos,  one,  oikos,  house) 
b,  c,  sometimes  dicecious  (dis,  two,  oikoi,  houses),  d,  e.  When 
together,  the  $  are  above  the  ?  ,  and  consist  of  4  or  more  ses- 
sile anthers  opening  at  the  top.  The  9  fertile  flower  is 
merely  a  1-celled  ovary  with  flat  stigma  and  2  or  more  ovules 
erect  from  the  bottom  of  the  cell  (g*). 

A  section  of  the  seed  (g)  shows  a  straight  embryo  in  the 
midst  of  fleshy  albumen  with  only  1  cotyledon.  The  fruit 
is  a  mass  of  scarlet,  several-seeded  berries. 

The  Name  of  this  plant  is  Arismma  triplfyllum — Ari- 

*  The  starch  in  many  species  of  this  plant  is  used  as  food.  In  the  days  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  it  furnished  the  stiffening  for  the  enormous  lawn  ruffs  then  worn  by  gen- 
tlemen and  gentlewomen.  These  became  so  large  that  it  is  said  the  Queen  placed  a 
guard  at  the  city  gates  to  cut  down  any  ruffs  that  were  over  a  yard  wide.  They  needed 
a  very  strong  starch,  such  as  was  made  from  this  root ;  though  it  was,  says  the  old 
herbalist,  "most  hurtfull  to  the  hands  of  the  laundresse,  for  it  chappeth,  blistereth 
and  maketh  the  handes  rough  and  withall  smarting." 


232 


JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. 


saema  being  an  alteration  of  Arum,  its  former  name  ;  triphyl- 
lum,  the  same  as  trifoliate. 

Ariscema  Drucontium,  Green  Dragon,  another  species 
growing  in  marshes,  has  its  one  leaf  divided  into  about  9 
leaflets,  and  its  spadix  very  long-pointed. 


7,  Or6nlium  Americanum  ;  s,  the  ppadix  destitute  of  a  spathe  ;  8,  Calla  palustris  ; 
6,  a  spathe  and  spadix  ;  9,  a  flower  with  6  stamens  and  an  ovary  ;  10,  cross-cection  of 
a  berry,  showing  6  cells. 

The  Golden  Club  (Ordntium)  growing  in  rocky  rills,  may 
be  examined  in  connection  with  the  Arisaemas.  Its  yellow 
spadix  has  no  spathe  and  is  covered  above  with  perfect  flow- 
ers. Also  our  native  Calla  (C.  palustris)  growing  in  swamps, 
whose  short  spadix  is  covered  with  perfect  flowers  and  invested 
with  a  white  spathe. 

The  favorite  House  Calla  (RicJidrdia  Africana)  is  a  native 
of  S.  Africa.  Here,  also,  the  flowers  cover  the  whole  spadix, 
the  $  above  and  the  ?  below.  The  leaves  of  this  and  of  the 
two  preceding  are  decidedly  parallel- veined. 

Classification. — The  order  ARACE^E — the  Aroids — in- 
cludes the  above  and  many  other  genera.  We  may  briefly 
define  the  order  as  follows  : 


OKCHIS.  233 

Herbs  pungent  and  acrid,  with  rhizomes  or  conns. 
Leaves  often  net-veined,  generally  parallel- veined. 
Flowers  small,  crowded  on  a  spadix. 
Ovary  free,  with  a  sessile  stigma. 
Embryo  with  one  cotyledon. 

The  Aroids  are  chiefly  tropical,  numbering  43  genera  and  240  spe- 
cies. They  are  generally  acrid,  and  some  are  dangerously  poisonous. 

The  Dumb  Cane  (Diffeiibdchid)  of  the  W.  Indies  is  so  called  because, 
if  tasted,  it  causes  the  tongue  to  swell  and  fill  the  mouth. 

Sweet  Flag  (Acorns)  grows  in  cold  streams  of  the  Northern  States. 
Its  long,  thick  rhizomes  are  sought  for  their  warm,  pungent,  aromatic 
taste. 

Calddium  and  Colocdsia  are  cultivated  for  their  large,  ornamental 
leaves  ;  also  for  their  tuberous,  edible  roots. 

Scientific  Terms. — Dioecious.    Monoecious.    Spadix.    Spathe. 


LXI.  THE  SHOWY  ORCHIS. 

Description. — With  eager  longing  and  patient  search 
the  botanist  expects  the  Rose-tinted  Orchis  in  the  late  days 
of  May,  when  Spring  is  fading  into  Summer.  It  belongs, 
with  Lady's  Slipper,  to  a  high-toned,  fastidious  race,  very 
choice  of  its  soil  in  old  rich  woods,  here  and  there,  and  soon 
retreating  when  its  haunt  is  discovered.  It  will  be  promptly 
recognized  by  its  two  obovate,  shining  leaves,  4-angled  scape, 
and  several  rose-colored  flowers. 

Analysis. — The  root,  bract,  leaves,  and  scape,  we  leave 
to  the  discrimination  of  the  student.  Let  him  note  every 
point  of  form  or  structure  whereby  the  species  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  others. 

The  Flower  is  constructed  after  a  pattern  quite  new  and 
extraordinary.  In  general  aspect  it  seems  bilabiate.  Beneath 
is  seen  the  inferior  (adherent),  twisted  ovary.  A  careful 
analysis  will  show  the  perianth  composed  of  3  sepals  in  an 
outer  whorl  and  3  petals  in  an  inner  one.  The  lower  petal 


234: 


THE   SHOWY    ORCHIS. 


FIG.  LXL— Orchis  spectabilis  :  2,  a  flower  ;  I,  the  lip  ;  s,  the  spur  ;  o,  the  twisted 
ovary  ;  3,  the  column  (enlarged) ;  6,  the  place  of  the  sticky  glands  at  the  ends  of  the 
stalks  of  the  pollinia,  which  are  seen  partly  extracted  from  the  anther  cells  ;  a,  the 
stigmatic  surface  ;  4,  a  pollinium  (pollen  mass)  adhering  to  the  finger,  at  first  erect, 
soon  declined  as  when  attached  to  a  moth's  head,  in  order  to  be  thrust  in  the  face  of 
the  stigma. 


ORCHIS. 


235 


is  the  lower  lip,  and  it  is  at  the 
base  produced  backward  into  a  slen- 
der spur — the  nectary — seen  under 
the  ovary.  The  two  upper  petals 
are  somewhat  united,  covering  the 
stamens  like  a  hood.  The  3  sepals 
are  also  ascending  and  converging 
with  them — all  rose-purple,  form- 
ing a  vaulted  upper-lip.* 

Instead  of  stamens  and  pistils, 
there  is  an  oval,  concave  mass  called 
the  column — a  stamen  and  pistil 
combined.  In  it  are  2  anther-cells, 
and  a  broad  stigma-surface  between 
them.  Each  cell  contains  a  club- 
shaped  mass  of  granular  pollen, 
erect  on  a  stipe  attached  to  a  sticky 
gland  on  the  stigma.  These  pollen 
masses  are  the  pottinia,  and  such 
flowers  are  called  gynandrous.  \ 

Fertilization .  In  the  Orchis  it  becomes  an  interesting 
question  how  the  pollinia  shut  up  in  the  2  cells  c  c  can  be 
brought  into  contact  with  the  stigma  at  s  ?  Eepeated  obser- 


5,  Calopdgon  pulchellus— lip 
on  the  upper  side  (1),  column 
on  the  lower. 


*  Strictly  speaking,  the  lower-lip  ;  for  by  the  twisting  of  the  ovary  half-a-turn  the 
whole  flower  is  inverted.  In  the  elegant  Grass  Pink  (Calopogori)  the  ovary  is  not 
twisted  ;  and  the  lip  proper,  the  lip  consisting  of  one  petal,  is  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
flower. 

t  Every  part  of  the  Orchis  seems  purposely  shaped  to  perform  some  special  work 
in  its  economy.  The  upper  portion  protects  the  delicate  pollen-masses  ;  the  hinder- 
part  is  prolonged  into  a  tube  which  does  not  yield  nectar  until  it  is  gnawed  ;  and  the 
lower  portion  is  a  tempting  and  convenient  alighting  stage  for  insects.  Even  the 
pollen-masses  are  specialized  in  a  marvellous  degree,  and  are  usually  associated  with 
mechanic  contrivances  intended  for  adherence  to  the  probosces  and  bodies  of  butter- 
flies and  moths.  Their  perfumes  are  as  various  as  their  shapes,  and  even  the  honey 
seems  to  have  a  variety  of  flavor  which  makes  it  more  sought  for  by  some  insects 
than  by  others.  Had  the  Orchids  been  rational  beings  fully  aware  of  the  laws  of 
biology,  chemistry  and  mechanics,  they  could  not  have  adapted  themselves  to  their 
surroundings  more  perfectly.— (Taylor.) 


236  THE    SHOWY   ORCHIS. 

vation  has  shown  that  the  agent  is  a  butterfly  with  a  probos- 
cis long  enough  to  fathom  the  nectary.*  The  mouth  of  the 
nectary  opens  just  beneath  the  stigma,  and  close  by  the  two 
sticky  glands  already  named.  The  lip  is  the  platform  on  which 
the  insect  alights.  Thrusting  its  proboscis  into  the  open- 
ing in  order  to  reach  the  nectar,  it  comes  into  contact  with 
the  glands,  which  adhere  to  its  head  so  that  in  retreating 
it  drags  the  pollinia  from  their  cells.  You  may  do  the  same 
with  your  finger  (4)  and  observe  that  in  a  few  seconds  the 
pollinium  bends  downward  on  its  stalk  (d).  Thus  it  comes 
into  the  exact  position  to  be  dashed  against  the  stigma  below 
the  cells  of  the  next  flower  the  insect  visits.  In  this  way, 
crossing  is  almost  inevitably  secured. 

The  Name. — Of  the  genus  Orchis  we  have  more  than 
20  native  species.  All  may  be  recognized  by  the  agreement 
of  the  flowers  to  the  above  description.  The  species  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  LXI,  0.  s])ectdUlis  (Showy  Orchis),  is  the 
earliest  in  flower.  Specifically  it  differs  from  the  others  in 
its  stigma,  which  has  the  sticky  glands  near  together  and 
enclosed,  while  in  the  others  they  are  separated  and  naked  ; 
and  the  few  rose-purple  flowers  are  on  a  square  scape  not 
taller  than  the  2  obovate,  obtuse,  parallel-veined  leaves,  f 

Scientific  Terms. — Column.    Gynandrous. 


*  The  Madagascar  Orchis  has  a  nectary  nearly  a  foot  long.  Darwin  inferred  from 
this  fact  that  huge  moths  would  be  found  on  that  island  with  probosces  sufficiently 
long  to  thrust  down  this  lengthy  tube.  No  moth  in  any  part  of  the  world  was  known 
to  possess  such  a  proboscis.  Since  then  Muller  has  found  a  species  in  Brazil  with  a 
trunk  that  even  when  dried  is  ten  or  eleven  inches  long. 

t  All  the  European  Orchids  and  some  of  our  own  (Adam-and-Eve,  e.  g.)  have  roots 
with  two  lobes— one  hard  and  vigorous,  the  other  withered  and  decaying.  The  former 
is  an  offshoot  from  the  latter,  and  has,  on  its  own  opposite  side,  a  bud  that  will  the 
next  year  expand  and  send  up  a  stem,  the  new  plump  bulb  withering  in  its  turn.  In 
consequence  of  this  mode  of  growth,  the  position  of  the  plant  changes  about  half  an 
inch  every  year,  and  so 

"  The  Orchis  takes 
Its  annual  step  across  the  earth," 

in  time  becoming  quite  far  removed  from  its  original  position. 


ORCHIDS.  237 


LXII.  OTHER   ORCHIDS.* 

Description. — Among  the  flowers  of  June,  the  practiced 
collector,  acquainted  with  0.  spectabilis,  will  recognize  yet 
other  kinds  of  Orchis,  or  of  its  cousins.  In  old  woods 
abounding  in  Hemlock 
and  Pine,  let  him  expect 
the  Great  Round-leaved 
Orchis  (0.  orliculata). 
It  will  be  known  by  its  2 
large  (5-8'),  rounded, 
polished,  parallel-veined 
leaves  lying  flat  on  the 

ground,    and    its   tall     (2       eel  ovary  ;  .,  the  spur. 

ft.),  bracted  scape  bearing  a  raceme  of  strag- 
gling greenish-white  flowers. 

Analysis. — The  student  will  mark  the 
form  of  the  column,  so  different  from  that  of 
0.  spectabilis.  Here  the  sticky  glands  are 
naked,  disk-form,  and  widely  apart,  as  are  also 
the  pollinia  which  they  support.  Note  also  the  long  strap- 
shaped  lip,  the  roundish  upper  sepal,  and  the  slender  spur 
nearly  2'  long.  No  insects  but  the  largest  Sphynx  Moths 

*  In  the  Orchids  are  seen  the  highest  evidence  of  the  mutual  relations  of  flowers 
and  insects.  In  numerous  species  special  adaptations  are  carried  so  far  that  while 
self-fertilization  is  impossible,  the  service  of  crossing  is  limited  to  a  single  species  of 
insect  only.  Thus  Nature  here  emphasizes  the  principle  of  cross-fertilization  ;  and 
experience  has  shown  that  plants  raised  from  seed  produced  by  flowers  fertilized  by 
pollen  from  another  flower,  are  stronger,  usually  taller,  bear  more  flowers  and  pro- 
duce more  seeds  than  those  grown  from  the  seed  of  plants  fertilized  by  the;r  own 
pollen.  "  Nature  seems  everywhere  to  have  forbidden  the  banns  of  intermarriage, 
and  her  decree  is  carried  out  whenever  possible,  from  mosses  to  men."  There  have 
been  cases  in  the  history  of  some  tribes  where  intermarriage  only  could  save  the  race 
from  extinction.  Similarly,  among  plants,  there  are  some  flowers  which  have  to 
adopt  self-fertilization  as  a  rule,  or  as  a  last  resort ;  but  the  pre-eminent  law  is  against 
it  even  more  in  plants  than  in  animals,  enforced  by  the  very  structure  of  the  flowers. 
It  is  hardly  too  much  to  assert  that  every  species  of  flowering  plant  has  its  peculiar 
modification  to  realize  this  end.  It  is  as  if  plants  themselves  were  conscious  of  the 
importance  of  this  principle,  and  so  adopt  some  device  to  carry  it  out. 


238 


OTHER    ORCHIDS. 


have  a  proboscis  long  enough  to  fathom  the  depth  of  this 
nectary,  suck  its  nectar  and  extricate  its  pollinia. 

*Pur2)2e- fringed  Orcfris.  In  June  and  July,  look 
in  wet  grassy  meadows  for  these  handsome  Orchids,  known 
by  their  erect,  tall  stems,  beset  with  lance-shaped  leaves 
below,  bracts  above,  and  a  terminal  plume-like  raceme  of 
roseate  purple-fringed  flowers.  The  twisted  ovary,  long 

slender  spur,  the  lip  3-part- 
ed  and  fringed,  the  2  other 
petals  either  notched  or 
fringed,  are  their  striking 
features.  Then  the  column, 
protruding  forward  and 
apart,  the  2  button-shaped 
glands  of  the  cooped  pol- 
linia, present  altogether  an 
appearance  extravagant  and 
grotesque. 


J,  Cypripedium  acaule  ;  3,  plan  of  the  flower  ;  s  (outer  circle),  3  sepals,  the  2  lower 
united,  p,  the  petals,  one  of  them  ($  the  lip,  <3,  the  stamens,  0,  the  ovary  ;  4,  the  col- 
umn, seen  from  beneath,  showing  the  3  stamens,  1  leaf -like,  and  stigma  ;  5,  Arethusa 
bulbdsa  ;  6,  the  column,  with  lid-like  anther  opened  by  the  bee. 

Fig.  LXII  is  an  enlarged  view  of  a  flower  of  0.  PsycJwdes 
(psyche,  a  butterfly,  eidos,  appearance).  With  a  lip  more 
deeply  fringed,  and  the  two  other  petals,  p  p,  also  fringed, 


OKCHIDS.  239 

the  cut  would  nearly  resemble  the  flower  of  Dr.  Bigelow's 
0.  grandiflora,  so  common  in  the  meadows  of  New  England. 
Again,  with  the  lip  less  deeply  fringed,  the  terminal  segment 
split,  the  lateral  segments  squarely  clipped,  and  the  whole 
flower  violet-purple,  we  should  have  a  flower  of  O.peramwna, 
a  splendid  plant  of  the  meadows  West  and  South. 

Z/ady '  s-slipper.  Several  kinds  of  this  interesting 
genus  ( Cypripedium)  may  be  detected  in  their  sylvan  retreats, 
and  analyzed  in  this  connection.  Three  distinctive  marks 
will  be  noted.  The  column  has  3  stamens,  2  with  anthers 
and  1  petal-like,  with  no  anther  ;  the  lip  is  an  inflated  sack  ; 
the  2  lower  sepals  are  united  to  near  the  apex. 

Classification. — These  few  instances  suffice  to  introduce 
the  great  and  marvelous  order  of  the  OKCHIDACE^; — the 
Orchids — containing  probably  400  genera  and  3000  species, 
known  by  the  following  marks  : 

Herbs  with  parallel-veined  leaves. 

Flowers  irregular,  3-parted,  with  a  lip. 

Perianth  adherent  to  the  ovary. 

Stamens  1  or  2,  gynandrous. 

Pollen  cohering  in  masses — pollinia. 

Ovary  1 -celled,  with  innumerable  ovules. 

Fertilization  effected  only  by  insect  agency. 

The  Orchids  grow  in  all  countries,  but  are  most  abundant  in  the 
hot  damp  regions  within  the  Tropics.  There  they  thrive  in  countless 
thousands  as  air-plants  (epiphytes)  independent  of  the  soil,  clinging  to 
the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  and  to  naked  rocks,  drawing  their 
nourishment  from  the  air  alone,  displaying  curious  and  grotesque 
forms  of  floral  beauty  in  endless  variety.  Their  mimicry  of  insects, 
birds  *  and  reptiles,  is  often  very  striking,  and  also  significant  in  view  of 
their  dependence  on  insects  for  their  very  existence.  Are  the  insects  them- 
selves deceived  and  enticed  by  these  animal  forms  and  appearances  ? 
The  products  of  the  Orchids  useful  to  mankind  are  very  few.  The 

*  Thus  in  the  Holy  Spirit  Plant  (Peristlria,  eldfa)  of  Central  America,  the  corolla 
is  of  alabaster  whiteness,  and  the  column  within  is  an  almost  perfect  likeness  of  a 
dove  with  outspread  wings,  as  artists  are  wont  to  paint  the  Holy  Spirit.  No  wonder 
that  among  the  ignorant  natives  it  becomes  an  object  of  superstitious  reverence. 


240 


OTHER   ORCHIDS. 


fragrant  Vanilla  used  in  confectionery  is  obtained  from  the  dried  fruit 
of  Vairitta  planiflora,  and  other  species,  of  Mexico.* 


ORGAN. 

Life,  ZTabit,  dumber,  Place,  Dehiscence,  ^Tind,  Construc- 
tion, .Form,  Placentation,  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

y,  terrestrial,  acaulescent,  Ifoot  high,  downy. 

Root,  L  K. 

14,  inaxial,  of  many  tufted  fibers. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F.. 

Crown  subterranean,  undeveloped. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

0  ,  2,  radical,  parallel-veined,  plaited,  ovate,  5f. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Scape  with  a  bract  and  a  flower  at  the  top. 

Flower,  N.C. 

1,  irregular,  symmetrical,  3-parted,  perfect. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Open,  adherent,  greenish. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  3,  the  2  lower  united,  lance-oblong. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Very  irregular,  tJie  lip  rose-purple. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Z  petals  linear,  lip  saccate,  obovoid,  large. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

3,  joined  to  the  pistil,  1  a  rhombic  leaf. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

%,  fertile,  2-celled,  with  granular  pollen.               , 

Style,  N.C.F. 

Short,  under  the  sterile  stamen. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

Terminal,  obscurely  3-lobed,  roughish. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

Inferior,  curved,  oblong,  1-celled. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

A  3-angled,  3-valved  capsule,  1-celled. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

Very  numerous  and  minute. 

LOCALITY.—  Rocky  woods,  Stamford,  Conn.    (Date),  May,  1865. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  FLOWERING  ENDOGENS. 
—Order,  OBCHIDACE^E,  THE  ORCHIDS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Cypripedium  acaule. 

English,  The  Stemless  Lady's-slipper. 
REMARKS.—  The  lip  is  slipper-shaped,  near  %'  long. 

*  Attempts  made  to  grow  this  plant  in  the  East  Indies  failed,  since,  though  the 
plant  blossomed  abundantly,  it  failed  to  fruit,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  insect  that 
in  its  native  haunts  is  its  pollen-bearer.  On  that  account  artificial  fertilization  was 
adopted. 


IBIS.  241 


LXI1I.   IRIS,   OR   BLUE  FLAG.* 

Description. — The  Blue  Flag  is  everywhere  associated 
with  swimming  bogs,  bull-rushes,  and  frogs.  We  look  for 
the  large  blue  flowers  in  June.  Several  new  features,  and 
new  combinations  of  old  ones,  here  await  the  student's 
pleasure. 

Analysis.— The  base  of  the  stem  will  remind  him  of  the 
rhizome  of  the  Bloodroot.  The  leaves  are  decidedly  paral- 
lel-veined, and  arranged  alternately,  in  2  ranks.  As  to  form 
and  position,  they  are  ensiform  (ensis,  a  sword) ;  that  is, 
linear  in  outline,  and  vertical,  or  with  the  edges  turned 
upward  and  downward.  The  vernation  of  the  leaves,  as  seen 
in  a  cross-section  of  an  early  shoot  (2),  is  equitant  (i.  e. 
riding  astride). 

The  Flower.  Note  the  inflorescence,  and  bracts ;  the 
convolute  aestivation  of  the  calyx  and  corolla  as  seen  in  a 
cross-section  of  the  bud ;  and  the  position  of  the  floral 
organs  exhibited  in  a  vertical  section  (3),  the  latter  showing 
the  adhesion  of  the  perianth  to  the  (inferior)  ovary.  The 
attitude  and  colors  of  the  sepals  and  petals  are  remarka- 
ble ;  the  former  reflexed,  the  latter  erect  or  even  incurved 
over  the  central  organs.  The  3  stigmas  would  hardly  be 
known  were  it  not  for  their  position,  so  much  do  they 
resemble  petals.  These  are  properly  winged  styles,  only  the 
tip  of  the  upper  surface  being  stigmatic.  At  the  base,  they 


*  The  Iris  has  an  historic  interest.  Several  species-of  the  flower  have  borne  the 
name  flower-de-luce  or  fleur-de-lis,  from  the  French  Fleur-de-Louis,  as  during  the 
Crusades  that  king  adopted  it  as  the  emblem  of  his  shield,  and  strewed  it  on  the  man- 
tle of  his  son  at  the  coronation  in  the  cathedral  at  Rheims  (Brief  History  of  France, 
p.  46).  After  the  battle  of  Crecy,  it  was  united  with  the  arms  of  England,  but  after- 
ward gave  place  to  the  Shamrock  of  Ireland.  It  is  still  the  Lily  of  France.  The 
ancients  regarded  the  Iris  as  the  emblem  of  eloquence  or  power.  It  was  placed  on 
the  brow  of  the  Sphinx,  and  the  kings  of  Babylon  bore  it  on  their  scepter. 
11 


FIG.  LXHL— Iris  versicolor  :  2,  section  showing  the  vernation  ;  3,  vertical  section 
of  the  flower  ;  4,  the  flower  displayed,  excepting  5,  the  pistil  and  3  stigmas. 

24:2 


IRIS.  243 

unite  with  one  another  and  with  the  perianth,  and  so  con- 
tinue down  to  the  triple  adherent  ovary. 

The  Fruit,  when  mature,  is  a  dry,  oblong,  obscurely 
3-cornered  capsule,  3-celled  and  3-valved.  The  seeds  are 
numerous.  A  dissection  shows  them  to  contain  a  minute 
monocotyledonous  embryo  in  a  large  albumen. 

Fertilization. — Half  concealed  beneath  the  arching 
stigmas  we  find  the  3  stamens,  with  the  anthers  extrorse, 
that  is,  opening  and  discharging  their  pollen  outward — 
averse  from  the  stigma.  This  suggests  the  inquiry,  How 
can  the  pollen  from  the  anthers  ever  reach  the  stigmas  ? 
Instead  of  facilitating,  special  care  seems  to  have  been  taken 
to  guard  against  it ;  the  anther  and  stigma  placed  back  to 
back,  the  former  beneath  and  shedding  its  pollen  downward. 
It  is  clear  that  self-fertilization  is  impossible.  In  the  cavity 
at  the  bottom  of  the  flower  is  a  drop  of  nectar.  First,  the 
attention  of  the  foraging  bee  is  caught  by  the  gay  colors  of 
the  flower  ;  then  he  is  drawn  by  the  nectar.  Alighting  on 
a  spreading  sepal  he  brushes  the  anther  both  coming  and 
going,  catches  on  his  head  and  back  more  or  less  of  the 
pollen,  which  will  thus  be  carried  and  scattered  either  on 
the  stigma  of  the  same  flower,  or  of  the  flower  next  visited, 
where  also  he  is  again  dusted.  The  result  is  an  endless 
interchange  of  pollen,  with  a  greater  probability  of  cross 
than  of  close  fertilization. 

The  Name. — Iris  versicolor  is  the  classical  name — Iris, 
the  fabled  deity  of  the  Rainbow  ;  versicolor,  various-colored. 
Other  species  of  Iris  will  be  found  in  the  meadows  and  bogs, 
and  still  others  in  the  gardens.  Let  them  be  compared  with 
this  and  their  diiferences  noted. 


244  BLUE-EYED    GRASS. 

LXIV.  BLUE-EYED  GRASS. 

Description. — This  is  a  frequent  inhabitant  of  meadpws, 
both  lowland  and  upland,  so  much  resembling  the  grasses 
in  its  foliage  that  it  would  seldom  be  detected  but  for  the 
blue  flowers  open  in  June. 

Analysis.— What  kind  of  a  root  has  it  ?  Its  life  ?  The 
stem — has  it  any?  And  what  its  place,  size,  etc.  ?  The 
leaves — are  they  vertical  as  in  Iris  ? 

The  Inflorescence— -is  it  borne  on  a  stem  or  a  scape  ? 
Respecting  its  form,  the  stalk  is  ancipital — two-edged  or 
winged.  The  flowers  issue  from  the  midst  of  several  bracts, 
of  which  the  2  outer  are  green,  the  inner  scarious.  The 
ovary — is  it  free,  or  adherent  ?  The  perianth  is  6-parted. 
Is  there  any  difference  between  the  3  sepals  and  the  3  petals  ? 
All  are  mucronate,  that  is,  tipped  with  a  slender  point,  with 
a  notch.  The  stamens  are  3,  with  their  filaments  united 
below  into  a  tube  sheathing  the  triple  style.  The  fruit  is  a 
globular  capsule  with  3  cells  and  about  24  roundish  seeds. 
The  seed,  black  and  rough-coated,  shows,  in  a  section,  an 
embryo  with  one  cotyledon  in  large  albumen. 

The  Name  is  Sisyrinchium  Bermudidna — the  former 
from  the  Greek,  meaning  a  pig's  snout,  alluding  to  the  form 
of  the  bracts  ;  the  latter  referring  to  the  islands  whence  Lin- 
naeus first  received  it. 

'  The  beautiful  Gladiolus  (a  little  sword)  of  the  gardens, 
with  ensiform  (sword-shaped)  leaves  and  a  spike  of  irregular 
flowers,  may  be  analyzed  in  connection  with  Iris  and  Sisy- 
rinchium. 

The  Order  of  the  Irids — IRIDACE^; — is  represented  by 
these  plants.  It  includes  55  genera  and  550  species,  chiefly 
natives  of  S.  Africa,  Europe,  and  the  United  States.  They 
coincide  in  the  following  traits  : 


FIG.  LXIY. — Sisyrinchium  Bermudiana  :  2,  vertical  section  of  the  perianth,  show- 
ing the  ovary  (o,  inferior),  the  3  united  stamens,  etc. ;  3,  the  ovary  dissected  ;  4,  croes- 
section  of  the  capsule  ;  5,  a  seed  dissected,  showing  the  embryo  ;  6,  plan  of  the  flower 
of  an  Iris. 


246  THE   TKILLIUMS. 

Herbs  with,  equitant,  2-ranked  leaves. 
Perianth  adherent  to  the  ovary. 
Segments  in  2  sets,  contorted  in  bud. 
Stamens  3,  with  extrorse  anthers. 
Stigmas  3,  opposite  to  the  stamens. 
Capsule  3-celled,  3-valved. 
Seeds  many,  with  hard  albumen. 

The  Irids  are  more  remarkable  for  beautiful  and  fugitive  flowers 
than  for  useful  products.  Besides  those  already  noted,  we  find  here 
the  Mexican  Tigridia,  the  Crocus,  Tritonias,  Watsonias,  etc. 

The  Aromatic  Orris-Root  used  in  all  tooth-powders,  with  the  aroma 
of  Violets,  is  obtained  from  the  Florentine  Iris  (7.  Florentine?). 

Saffron,  a  well-known  yellow  dye  as  well  as  a  useful  medicine,  is 
the  dried  stigmas  of  Crocus  satwus* 

LXV    THE  TRILLIUMS. 

Description. — These  plants  are  peculiarly  interesting 
for  the  symmetry  of  their  construction,  the  ternate  division 
being  extended  in  them  throughout.  They  may  be  sought 
generally  in  shady  forests,  which  they  enliven  with_  their 
conspicuous  bloom  in  the  month  of  May,  rarely  earlier. 
While  the  genus  is  widely  disseminated  in  the  country, 
the  species  are  local,  no  one  kind  being  within  the  reach  of 
all.  It  is  therefore  expedient  to  direct  attention  to  the 

GENERIC  CHARACTERS. — The  Stem  arises  from  a  tuberous 
root-stock  always  premorse,  i.  e.,  ending  abruptly  as  if  bitten 
off,  in  consequence  of  the  decay  of  the  portions  grown  in 
previous  years.  Each  plant  has  3  leaves  and  1  flower. 

The  Zf eaves  are  verticillate  and  exhibit  a  reticulate 
venation,  as  if  the  plant  were  an  Exogen,  which  it  is  not. 

*  Saffron  is  referred  to  in  the  Song  of  Solomon  as  a  valuable  product.  In  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome,  it  was  a  condiment  highly  esteemed  on  the  tables  of  the  rich.  Our 
Saxon  ancestors  relished  jusselle — a  compound  of  eggs,  grated  bread,  saffron  and 
sage  ;  and  an  old  English  writer  says,  "  Without  saffron  we  cannot  have  well-cooked 
peas."  Saffron  is  still  used  at  the  East  as  a  perfume.  As  only  the  stigma  of  the 
Crocus  should  be  used,  the  drug  is  costly,  and  is  often  adulterated  with  the  florets  of 
Marigold  and  Safflower  ( Cdrthamus  tinctorim),  which  want  the  aromatic  and  stimu- 
lating properties  of  the  Crocus-saffron. 


TRILLIUM.  247 


ORGAN. 


Life,  .Habit,  JVumber,  ^orm.Ztehiscence,  jfiTind,  Construc- 
tion, ^'orm,  Placentation,  /Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 


Plant,  L.H.S.Q.,   V,  herb  erect,  15'  high,  glabrous. 


Root,  L.K.,  11 ,  rhizome  short,  thick,  premorse. 


Stem,  L.H.K.F.,  herbaceous,  caulis  erect,  simple,  terete. 


Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q.,  a  whorl  of  3,  terminal,  broad-rhombic,  some  net-veined. 


Inflorescence,  P.K.A.,  terminal,  solitary,  peduncle  erect,  or  nearly  so. 


Flower,  N.C.,  one,  perfect,  complete,  regular,  3-parted. 


Calyx,  F.Q.,  wheel-shaped,  green. 


Sepals,  L.N.P.F.,  persistent,  3,  spreading,  lance-ovate. 


Corolla,  F.Q.,  star-shaped,  dark  dull  purple,  ill-scented. 


Petals,  L.N.P.F.,  deciduous,  3,  spreading,  lanceolate-ovate,  pointed. 


Stamens,  N.P.C.,   6,  erect,  included,  filaments  shoi^t. 


Anther,  D.C.F.,  linear,  adnate,  introrse,  opening  lengthwise. 


Style,  N.C.F.,  3,  stigmatic  along  the  inner  side. 


Stigma,  N.F.,  3,  long,  recurved  and  revolute. 


Ovary,  C.F.Pn.,  3-celled,  6-angled,  placentae  central. 


Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q.,  an  indehiscent,  purple,  ovoid  berry. 


Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A.,  several,  anatropous,  albuminous,  black. 


LOCALITY.—  Woods,  Windsor,  Vt.    (Date),  May,  1850. 
CLASSIFICATION.-FLOWERING  ENDOGENS. 

—Order,  TRILLIACE^E,  THE  TBELLIADS. 
NAME.— Latin,  Trillium  erectum. 

—English,  Bath  Flower. 
REMARKS.— Peduncle  3'  long,  flower  nearly  2'  broad. 


248 


THE    TKILLIUMS. 


The  Flower  is  perfect,  complete,  regular  and  alternating. 
The  calyx  is  free  from  the  ovary,  consisting  of  3  green  sepals. 
The  corolla  contains  3  colored  petals.  There  are  6  stamens 


FIG.  LXV.— Trillium  erythroc&rpum :  o,  diagram,  representing  the  floral  organs 
apart,  s,  calyx,  c,  corolla,  st,  stamens,  o,  pistils  ;  3,  the  flower  of  T.  erectom  with 
perianth  removed. 

evidently  in  2  circles,  with  anthers  longer  than  the  filaments. 
One  ovary  appears,  superior,  compounded  of  3  carpels,  there 
being  3  distinct,  sessile  stigmas.  The  fruit,  ripe  in  July  and 
August,  is  a  red  or  purple  berry,  with  3  cells.  There  are 
several  seeds  in  each  cell,  having  the  1-cotyledoned  embryo 
in  copious  albumen. 

The  Name,  Trillium,  given  to  the  genus,  means  triple, 
all  the  parts  of  the  plant  being  in  threes.  There  are  ten 
species,  all  American.  T.  erytlirocdrpum  (red-fruited),  the 


MEDEOLA. 


249 


Wake  Robin,  illustrated  in  the  cuts,  inhabits  cold,  damp, 
often  mountainous  woods,  from  Canada  to  Georgia.     It  is 

known  by  its  petiolate  leaves, 
pedunculate  flower,  and  white, 
purple-veined  petals. 

T.  erectum,  the  Bath-flower, 
abounds  in  rich  woods,  especially 
Northward.  The  leaves  are  sessile, 
the  flower  pedunculate,  and  the 
petals  dark-purple,  ill-scented.  A 
variety  has  white  petals.  The  stu- 
dent will  analyze  the  various 
species  when  found,  and  note  in 
his  Plant  Record  their  specific 
characters.* 

The  Indian  Cucumber  (so 
called  from  its  white,  fleshy  rhi- 
zome) is  another  herb  of  singular 
symmetry,  frequent  in  the  old  f  or- 

4,  5,  flower  of  Trillium  erythro- 
carpum  :  5,  plan  of  the  flower  c       ©SIS  OI   most  01   the  btatCS.      it  has 

»  Dimple,   Blender  stem,   about  2 
feet  high,  bearing  a  whorl  of  6-8 
leaves  near  its  middle,  another   of  3   leaves   at  the  top, 

*  The  following  analytical  table,  condensed  from  the  Botanist  and  Florist,  shows 
at  a  glance  the  distinctive  features  of  our  8  species  of  Trillium  : 
§  Flowers  sessile.    Petals  dark  purple,  erect  ...............................  Nos-  1,  2. 

§  Flowers  on  a  peduncle  raised  above  the  leaves  .....  ...................  (*) 

*  Leaves  petiolate,  ovate,  rounded  at  the  base  ..........................  Nos.  3,  4. 

*  Leaves  sessile,  rhomboidal,  nearly  as  broad  as  long  ...................  Nos.  5,  6. 

§  Flowers  on  a  peduncle  deflexed  beneath  the  leaves,  white.  .  .  .............  Nos.  7,  8. 

No.  1.  71.  sessile,  L.    Leaves  sessile,  mottled,  petals  sessile. 

2.  T.  recurrum,  Beck.    Leaves  petiolate.    Petals  narrowed  to  a  claw. 

3.  T.  nirdle,  Riddell.    Leaves  obtuse.    Petals  obtuse,  snow  white. 

4.  T.  erythrocdrpiim,  MX.   Leaves  acuminate.    Petals  pencilled  with  purple. 

5.  T.  grandiflbrvm,  Salisb.    Petals  obovate,  2',  white,  becoming  roseate. 

6.  T.  ersctum,  L.    Petals  ovate,  dark-purple,  or  white,  1'  long. 

7.  T.  cernuum,  L.    Leaves  rhomboidal.    Petals  spreading.    Stigma  distinct. 

8.  T,  stylosum,  Nutt.  Leaves  elliptical.  Petals  recurved.  Stigmas  half  -united. 


3  united  ovaries. 


250 


THE    TRILLITJMS. 


6,  Portrait  of  Meddola  Virginica  ;  2,  a  flower,  life  size. 

together  with  2  or  3  greenish  flowers  on  recurved  peduncles. 
The  remarkable  feature  of  the  flower  is,  the  very  long,  red- 
dish stigmas.  The  student  will  systematically  analyze  and 
record. 


UVULAKIA.  251 

The  Name  is  Med&ola  Virginica — Medeola  derived  from 
the  fabled  sorceress  Medea  ;  Virginica,  because  the  plant  was 
first  found  in  Virginia  (by  Gronovius). 

The  Order  TKILLIACE^E,  represented  by  these  plants, 
comprehends  only  4  genera,  and  about  30  species.  Some 
authors  unite  this  order  to  the  Lilyworts.  Their  rhizomes 
are  generally  emetic,  some  of  the  Trilliums  violently  so. 


LXVI.  BELLWORT,  OR  WILD  OATS. 

Description. — Associated  in  memory  with  babbling 
brooks,  mossy  banks,  grassy  knolls,  in  the  borders  of  meadow 
and  forest,  are  the  hanging  Bellworts,  known  to  our  child- 
hood as  Wild  Oats.  They  come  not  in  Flora's  advance-guard 
with  Bloodroot  and  Erythronium,  but  follow  later,  in  May, 
when  her  ranks  are  already  full.  It  would  be  desirable  to 
study  this  plant  in  connection  with  Erythronium ;  but  as 
their  flowers  are  not  contemporary,  a  dried  specimen,  or  the 
analysis  (p.  34)  must  suffice. 

Analysis  (generic). — Five  or  six  kinds  of  Bellwort  may 
be  found,  all  flowering  in  May.  Our  specimens  may  there- 
fore be  various,  yet  all  smooth  and  delicate  herbs  6-18'  high. 
The  stem  rises  from  a  rhizome,  forks  into  two  branches 
above,  both  leafy,  and  one  bearing  a  drooping  flower  on  a 
peduncle,  which  is  at  first  terminal,  but  becomes  axillary  by 
the  further  development  of  the  branch.  The  lea\es  are 
parallel-veined,  oval  or  oblong,  and  either  sessile,  or  clasp- 
ing the  stem  at  the  base  (amplexicauT),  or  perfoliate,  i.  e., 
with  the  stem  passing  through  the  blade  near  the  base. 

The  *Periant?i  is  between  cylindric  and  bell-shaped,  con- 
sisting of  3  sepals  and  3  petals  all  similar  in  color  and  lance- 
spatulate  in  form,  often  twisted,  having  a  honey  groove  or 


THE    BELLWOKT. 


PIG.  LXVL— Uvularia  sassilifdlia :  2,  section  of  the  flower ;  8,  the  pistil— triple, 
3-parted  above  ;  4,  the  capsule  :  5,  a  cross-section,  showing  the  3  cells  ;  6,  section  of 
a  seed,  with  embryo  ;  7,  plan  of  the  flower,— all  in  3s  and  alternating. 


UVULAKIA. 


253 


pit  at  base,  and  deciduous.   The  anthers  of  the  6  stamens  are 
adnate,  extrorse,  and  longer  than  the  filaments. 

The  Ovary,  as  in  Erythronium,  is  triple,  and  the  short 
style  bears  3  long,  distinct  stigmas.  The  fruit  is  also  a  cap- 
sule, but  with  fewer  seeds,  and  the  valves  open  directly  into 
the  cells,  that  is,  they  are  loculicidal  (locula,  a  cell,  cido,  I 
cut).  A  section  of  the  seed  largely, 
magnified  shows  an  embryo  with 
one  cotyledon  in  much  albumen. 

The  Name,  Uvuldria,  was 
conferred  on  this  genus  by  Lin- 
naeus for  the  fancied  resemblance 
of  the  pendant  flowers  to  the 
human  palate  (uvula).  The  com- 
mon species,  portrayed  in  Fig. 
LXVI,  is  U.  sessilifolia  (the  ses- 
sile-leaved), having  the  leaves 
sessile,  glaucous  beneath.  The 
flower  is  of  a  creamy  white,  hardly 
1'  long,  with  the  styles  nearly  as 
long  and  half  united. 

U.  perfolidta,  the  perfoliate- 
leaved,    is    also    common.      The 
cream-colored  flower  is  more  than          6>  Uvu&na  perfoiiata. 
1'  long,  and  the  petals  are  covered  and  roughened  inside 
with  grains,  or  a  mealy  dust.* 

U.  grandiflora,  the  great-flowered,  has  also  perfoliate 
leaves,  a  flower  1-J-'  long,  not  mealy  inside. 

*  In  this  species  and  the  next,  the  nature  of  perfoliate  leaves  is  seen.  The  stem 
passes  through  the  blade  (per,  through,  folium,  leaf)  near  the  base.  But  here  the 
upper  leaves  gradually  become  heart-shaped,  and  the  terminal  one  is  nearly  sessile, 
as  in  U.  sessilifolia.  This  shows  that  these  leaves  become  perfoliate  by  first  growing 
sessile,  then  enlarging  backwards  into  base  lobes,  which  finally  unite  by  their  inner 
edges  and  close  around  the  stem,  much  as  the  peltate  leaves  of  Tropseolum  (p.  91)  or 
the  upper  (double)  leaves  of  the  Honeysuckle. 


254 


THE    BELLWORT. 


ORGAN. 

1 
Life,  Habit,  JVumber,  Place,  Ztehiscence,  A'ind,  C'onstruc- 
tion,  Form,  Placentation,  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

H,  erect,  forking  above,  10-lk',  smooth. 

Root,  L.K. 

it,  fibers  from  the  joints  of  a  root-stock. 

Stem,  L.H.K.P. 

Herbaceous,  both  branches  leafy,  one  floriferous. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Cauline,  alternate,  perfoliate,  elliptical,  2-3',  thin. 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

Axillary,  solitary,  pedunculate,  pendulous. 

Flower,  N.C. 

One,  perfect,  complete,  3-parted,  hypogynous. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Like  the  corolla,  pale-yellow,  with  honey  grooves. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  3,  little  spreading,  linear-oblong. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Forming  with  the  calyx  a  bell-shaped  perianth. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

Deciduous,  3,  linear-oblong,  granulated  within. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

6,  hypogynous,  with  filaments. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

Longitudinally  2-celled,  linear. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

One,  deeply  3-cleft. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

The  3  branches  stigmatic  along  their  inner  surface.  .. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

3-cetted,  elliptic-oblong,  pn.  central. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

3-valved,  locvlicidal,  capsule. 

Seed,  N:C.F.Q.A. 

Few,  anatropous,  obovoid  ;  raphe  fungous. 

LOCALITY.—  Woods,  Akron,  0.    (Date),  May,  1868. 
CLASSIFICATION.-FLOWERING  ENDOGENS. 
—Order,  LLLIACEJS.     THE  LILYWORTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Uvulavia  perfoliata. 

—English,  Perfoliate  Bellwort.* 

*  Our  five  kinds  of  Uvularia  may  be  distinguished  as  follows.    (See  Botanist  and 
Florist,  p.  347,  Flora.) 
Leaves  sessile. 

1.  U.sessilifblia.  Leaves  glabrous,  glaucous  beneath.  Style  *  3-parted.  Pod3-angled. 

2.  IT.  puberula.    Leaves  puberulent,  green  both  sides.    Style  3-partecl.    Pod  ovoid. 
Leaves  perfoliate. 

3.  IT.  flava.    Perianth  1'  long,  bright  yellow,  smooth  both  sides.    Leaves  obtuse. 

4.  U.  perfoliata.    Perianth  15"  long,  pale-yellow,  covered  inside  with  shining  grains. 

5.  U.  grandiftora.    Perianth  18"  long,  smooth,  straw-yellow.    Anthers  obtuse. 


COtfVALLARIA. 


255 


LXVIL  LILY  OF  THE  VALLEY. 

Description. — In  May  seek  also,  in  the  gardens,  the 
Lily  of  the  Valley,  exquisite  in  delicacy  and  sweetness,  and 
analyze  in  connection  with  Uvularia.  It  is  originally  a 


PIG.  LXV1I.— Convallaria  majalis  :  2,  section  of  a  flower  ;  3,  the  ripe  berry. 

mountain  plant  of  Europe  and  grows  wild  on  the  high  Alle- 
ghanies  of  Virginia  and  Carolina.  It  is  propagated  by  its 
rhizomes.  In  the  cultivated  state  it  bears  no  fruit,  or  but  lit- 
tle, perhaps  for  want  of  the  special  insect  by  which  its  flowers 


256  LILY    OF    THE    VALLEY. 

are  fertilized  in  its  native  mountains.  There  its  red,  round, 
few-seeded  berries  are  perfected  in  abundance. 

Analysis. — How  much  of  the  plant  is  subterranean  ?  On 
this  large  proportion  depends  its  almost  unconquerable  vital- 
ity. The  Lily  of  the  Valley  is  strictly  acaulescent.  From 
each  bud  of  the  running,  slender  rhizome  arise  2  leaves  and 
several  bracts  involved  together,*  and  a  scape  outside  of  them 
(herein  different  from  Erythronium),  bearing  a  secund  or 
one-sided  raceme. 

The  'Perianth  is  remarkably  distinguished,  being  strictly 
gamopetalous.  Its  6  united  leaves  are  indicated  only  by  the 
six  teeth  of  the  border. — But  we  are  saying  more  than 
behooves  us.  Let  the  student  make  thorough  inquiry  and 
record  of  every  organ,  marking  especially  the  contrasts  with 
Uvularia  or  Erythronium. 

The  Name  of  this  plant  is  Convallaria  majalis  ;  the 
generic  term  being  derived  from  the  Latin  word  for  valley, 
the  usual  place  of  growth  of  some  of  the  species,  f 

CHntonia.  In  the  coldest  woods  of  the  Northern  States 
grows  the  Yellow  Clintonia  (Fig.  LXVII,  4),  flowering  in 
June.  The  dignity  and  elegance  of  its  port  compensate  for 
its  dull  colors,  and  the  collector  is  proud  of  its  discovery. 


*  In  the  portrait  (Fig.  LXVII)  we  seem  to  have  a  stem  and  a  peduncle  (a,  tf).  But 
the  stem  is  only  the  petioles  bound  together  by  sheathing  bracts.  Let  these  be  fused 
as  well  as  bound  together,  and  they  will  become  a  stem  indeed.  Thus  the  origin  and 
nature  of  the  stem  are  clearly  indicated.  It  is  formed  of  the  united  bases  of  all  the 
leaves— even  the  columnar  trunk,  which  lifts  on  high  the  organs  it  bears  in  order  to 
expose  them  more  thoroughly  to  the  quickening  influence  of  the  sun  and  air.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  various  appendages  of  the  stem— the  bracts  and  scales,  the  flower 
with  its  several  organs,  and  the  fruit,  are  each  but  modifications  of  the  leaf  ;  and  now 
we  learn  that  the  stem  itself,  even  the  woody  trunk,  is  indeed  a  combination  of  leaves. 
Hence  the  conclusion  that  the  LEAF  is  the  one  only  type  of  the  whole  plant. 

t  Our  Lily  of  the  Valley  is  often  supposed  to  have  been  the  plant  alluded  to  by 
Christ  when  he  bade  his  disciples  "Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field"  (Matt,  vi.,  28). 
Indeed  the  plant  is  called  by  name  in  Canticles  ii.,  1.  But  no  Convallaria  is  found  in 
the  Holy  Land.  The  Krinon  of  the  New  Testament,  rendered  "  Lily  of  the  field," 
may  have  been  the  red  Martagon  Lily  (Lilium  Chalced6nicum),  or  it  may  have  been  a 
general  term  referring  to  the  splendid  scarlet  Anemone  (A.  corondrius)  and  Ranuncu- 
lus (S.  Asidticus)  which  overspread  the  fields  of  Palestine. 


CLINTCWIA. 


257 


Analysis. — One  soon  learns  to  associate  this  plant  with 
Convallaria,  and  to  analyze  it  by  a  series  of  comparisons. 
Let  the  following  points  be  spe- 
cially investigated  : 

The  Stem,  its  habit,  form  and  kind. 

The  Leaves,  their  clothing,  venation 
and  outline. 

The  Inflorescence  and  its  appendages. 

The  Flower,  its  symmetry,  cohesions, 
form  of  perianth. 

The  Fruit,  its  kind,  form,  color,  cells. 

The  Seeds — number,  contents. 

The  Name  is  Clintonia  lorea- 
lis.  The  genus  was  dedicated  by 
Rafinesque  to  Gov.  DeWitt  Clin- 
ton ;  borealis,  is  the  Latin  for 
northern. 

Classification.— The  Clinto- 
nias,  Convallarias,  Uvularias,  Ery- 
throniums,  Tulips,  are  some  of  the 
beautiful  creations  which  consti- 
tute the  order  of  the  Lily  worts — 
or  LILIACE^:.  The  true  Lilies,  of 
the  genus  Lilium,  will  adorn  our  fields  and  gardens  in  mid- 
summer, and  add  new  luster  to  this  splendid  order.  Lind- 
ley  estimates  its  numbers  to  be — genera,  133  ;  species,  1200, 
all  combining  the  following  traits  : 

Leaves  parallel-veined,  simple. 

Flowers  regular,  perfect,  almost  always  3.-parted. 

Perianth  free  from  the  ovary,  its  segments  colored  alike. 

Stamens  as  many  as  the  segments  of  the  perianth. 

Styles  wholly  or  partly  united. 

Fruit  a  berry  or  capsule. 

Seeds  albuminous,  one-cotyledoned. 


4,  Clintonia  borealis ;  5,  a 
berry  cut  across  to  show  the 
2  cells. 


258  THE   STAK-GRASS. 

The  LilywortS  are  chiefly  herbs,  and  natives  of  temperate  cli- 
mates. The  Tropical  species  are  generally  shrubs  or  trees.  Besides 
their  pre-eminent  beauty,  many  species  are  variously  useful. 

The  Tulips,  Lilies,  Day  Lilies,  Yuccas,  Agapanthus,  Star  of  Beth- 
lehem, and  Hyacinth  are  well  known  garden  flowers. 

Crown  Imperial  (Fritttldria  imperidlis)  is  a  native  of  Persia.  Its 
crown  consists  of  a  tuft  of  terminal  bracts,  from  the  midst  of  which 
droop  the  large  red  or  yellow  flowers.  The  foetid  bulb  is  said  to  be 
poisonous. 

Onions,  Leeks,  Garlics,  are  the  bulbs  of  various  species  of  Allium. 
Quamash,  an  important  article  of  food  with  the  Digger  Indians  of  the 
far  West,  is  the  bulb  of  Scilla  esculenta,  and  several  species  of  Diche- 
lostemma.  Asparagus  is  the  young  shoots  of  Asparagus  officindlis. 

Aloes  is  the  dried  juice  of  Aloe  spicdta,  a  shrub  of  S.  Africa,  and  of 
other  species  of  this  genus. 

Squills,  a  valuable  medicine,  is  the  dried  bulb  of  Scilla  mantima, 
of  S.  Europe. 

Dragon's-blood  is  a  resin  exuding  from  Dracena  Draco,  a  large  tree 
of  the  Canaries.  One  specimen  has  a  trunk  more  than  20  feet  in 
diameter  ;  but  its  height  is  inconsiderable. 

New  Zealand  Flax  is  made  of  the  tenacious  fibers  of  Phor^nium 
tenax,  a  plant  resembling  a  Yucca.  The  still  stronger  fibers  of  Sensir 
vera  constitute  the  African  or  Bowstring  Hemp. 


LXV1II.   THE   STAR-GRASS. 

Description. — While  the  open  woodlands  glow  with 
the  purple  of  the  Wild  Geranium,  and  the  meadows  are 
touched  with  the  rainbow  tints  of  the  Iris,  the  humble  Star- 
grass,  low  down  in  the  drier  mold  at  your  feet,  unfolds  its 
yellow  stars  and  invites  a  passing  glance. 

Analysis. — In  securing  specimens  entire,  care  is  needed, 
for  the  solid  bulb  (the  conn)  lies  deep  and  is  anchored  by 
strong,  fibrous  roots. 

The  Stem  is  represented  by  this  conn  alone. 


HYPOXIS. 


259 


FIG.  LXVin. — Hyp&xis  erecta  :  1,  section  of  a  flower  ;  2,  anther  seen  from  within 
(introrse) ;  3,  anther,  outer  side  ;  4,  section  of  the  ovary  ;  5,  an  ovule  inverted  on  its 
stalk  (anatropous) ;  6,  a  capsule  partly  open  ;  7,  cross-section  of  the  same  ;  8,  a  seed ; 
9,  seed  dissected ;  10,  the  embryo  removed  from  its  albumen. 


260  THE    STAE-GEASS. 

The  Z/eaves,  compared  with  Iris,  are  both  like  and 
unlike.  In  venation,  parallel-veined  ;  in  vernation,  equitant 
and  triquetrous  (3-rowed) ;  in  outline,  linear ;  in  position, 
vertical.  Several  of  the  outer  leaves  are  reduced  to  mere 
sheaths  involving  all  the  others  at  the  base.  In  surface 
character,  i.  e.  in  quality,  the  leaf,  and  indeed  the  whole 
plant,  is  clothed  with  soft,  scattered  hairs. 

Inflorescence.  —Several  scapes  shorter  than  the  leaves 
(2-6',  leaves  3-8')  issue  with  them,  and  stand  erect,  although 
as  slender  as  a  thread  (filiform),  each  bearing  an  irregular 
umbel  of  2-5  flowers.  The  minute  bracts,  forming  an  in- 
volucre, must  not  escape  notice. 

The  Flower  is  perfect,  regular,  having  the  usual  4  sets 
of  organs,  and  closely  analogous  to  both  the  Irids  and  the 
Lilyworts.  But  from  these  two  orders  the  Star-grass  differs 
severally  by  at  least  one  important  character.  Here  let  the 
student  close  the  book,  and  determine  these  differences  for 
himself.  The  sepals  and  petals  being  similar  form  a  perianth.^ 

The  Irids  have  3  stamens  with  extrorse  anthers.  How  is 
this  in  the  Star-grass  ? 

The  Lilyworts  have  the  perianth  free  from  the  ovary. 
How  is  this  in  the  Star-grass  ? 

Compared  with  the  Trilliads  or  the  Orchids,  the  differ- 
ences become  many  and  more  obvious.  What  are  they  ? 

Are  the  sepals  and  petals  quite  similar  in  form  and  color  ? 
Both  are  imbricated  and  persistent,  withering  on  the  ad- 
herent ripening  ovary.  The  6  anthers  are  sagittate,  i.  e., 
arrow-shaped.  Only  one  style  appears  and  one  capitate 
stigma  ;  but  the  fruit  is  a  3-celled  capsule,  containing  many 
roundish,  black  seeds. 

The  Name  is  Hypoxis  erecta — Hypoxis  from  two  Greek 
words  signifying  "  sharp  beneath,"  probably  referring  to  the 
form  of  the  ovary,  or  flower-bud, 


NARCISSUS. 


261 


H.  filifblia,  the  thread-leaved  Hypoxis,  is  another  species, 
prevalent  in  the  Southern  States,  with  filiform  leaves  as  well 
as  scapes,  only  half  a  line  wide. 


LXIX.    NARCISSUS. 

Description. — In  Spain,  the  Jonquils,  Daffodils,  Poly- 
anths  and  Narcissi  "are  wild  native  plants.  In  America,  they 
nourish  only  in  gardens  under 
the  florist's  care,  prized  for 
their  elegance  and  sweetness. 
They  begin  to  bloom  a  week 
or  two  earlier  than  Hypoxis, 
with  which  plant  the  student 
will  do  well  to  compare  them. 
Analysis.— Narcissus  agrees 
with  Hypoxis  in  the  form, 
adhesion  and  aestivation  of 
the  perianth,  number  of  sta- 
mens, the  style,  capsule,  and 
other  parts,  which  will  be  duly 


FIG.   LXIX.— Narcissus  poeticus :  s,  bracts  forming  the  spathe  ;  2,  the  flower 
nearly  life  size  ;  3,  a  flower  of  N.  Pseudo-Narcissus. 

recorded.      But  it   differs  in  its  coated  bulb  (the  stem), 
horizontal,   not    vertical,   leaves,   one-leaved,   membranous 


262  THE  NARCISSUS. 

spathe,  and  most  conspicuously  in  its  corona — a  cup-shaped 
appendage  crowning  the  open  flower. 

The  Corona  arises  from  the  perianth  just  above  the 
throat,  and  includes  the  6  unequal  stamens  and  the  1  style. 
In  the  plant  before  us — known  as  the  Poet's  Narcissus,  in 
which  the  spathe  is  one-flowered,  the  corona  is  saucer- 
shaped,  much  shorter  than  the  white  perianth,  sulphur- 
yellow,  and  edged  with  vermilion. 

The  Name. — Narcissus,  the  generic  name,  comes  from 
the  Greek,  narkao,  meaning  to  become  numb ;  for  the  sup- 
posed effect  of  its  fragrance.  N.  poeticus  is  the  Poet's  Nar- 
cissus, or  the  species  which  Ovid  intended  in  his  fable  of 
the  youth  Narcissus,  who  pined  away  with  love  for  his  own 
image  reflected  in  the  fountain,  and  at  death  was  changed 
into  a  flower.  *  Among  the  numerous  species  are — 

N.  Pseudo- Narcissus  (False  Narcissus),  the  Daffodil, 
having  the  large,  yellow  flower  solitary  like  N.  poeticus,  but 
the  corona  is  large,  bell-shaped,  with  a  notched  margin.  Itv 
is  often  double.  In  this  state  the  petals  become  numerous, 
each-  bearing  a  fragment  of  the  broken  corona ;  but  the  3 
outer  leaves — the  sepals — are  free. 

N.  Jonquitta,  the  Jonquil ;  very  narrow  leaves,  2-5  small 
yellow  flowers  on  each  scape,  short  corona,  and  very  fragrant. 
The  name  is  a  diminutive  of  Juncus,  a  Kush. 

N.  Tazetta,  Polyanthus ;  leaves  linear,  flowers  5-20  white 
or  yellow,  crown  yellow. 

Classification. — By  Narcissus  and  Hypoxis  the  order  of 
the  Amaryllids — AMAKYLLIDACE^E — is  introduced,  number- 
ing 68  genera  and  400  species,  characterized  as  follows  : 

Bulbous  herbs  with  scapes  and  linear  leaves. 
Flowers  showy,  perfect,  not  woolly  nor  scurfy. 


*  The  ancients  used  the  Poet's  Narcissus  as  a  funeral  flower,  and  it  was  conse- 
crated to  the  Furies  who  are  fabled  to  stupefy  their  victims  before  punishing  them. 


HAKCISSTJS.  263 

Perianth  6-parted,  imbricated,  adherent. 

Stamens  6,  anthers  introrse. 

Ovary  3  celled,  with  the  styles  united  into  one. 

Fruit  a  berry  or  a  capsule. 

Seeds  one-cotyledoned,  albuminous. 

The  Amaryllids  display  their  chief  glories  in  S.  Africa  and  Bra- 
zil. In  other  countries,  they  are  thinly  dispersed  as  natives,  but  well 
represented  in  gardens  and  conservatories. 

Here  belong  the  fair  Snowdrop  (Gcddnthus\  the  graceful  Snowflake 
(Leucojum),  the  splendid  Jacobaea  (Sprekellia),  Amaryllis,  Pancratium, 
Crmum,  etc. 

The  Tuberose  (Polyanthus  tuberdsa,  i.  e.,  tuberous-rooted),  so  power- 
fully aromatic,  is  a  native  of  Ceylon. 

Hcsmdnthus  toxicdrius  and  other  species  have  poisonous  bulbs,  used 
by  the  Hottentots  for  poisoning  their  arrows.  The  flowers  of  the 
Daffodil  are  said  to  be  poisonous. 

The  American  Aloe  or  Century  Plant  (Agave  Americana)  is  a  native 
of  Mexico,  well  known  in  cultivation.  It  is  a  gigantic  herb,  flower- 
ing but  once,  after  a  growth  of  50  to  100  years.  But  then  its  blossoms 
are  numbered  by  thousands,  panicled  on  a  scape  30  feet  in  height.* 
The  juice  of  its  immense  leaves  is  mildly  acid.  By  fermentation  it  is 
perverted  into  a  vinous  beverage  resembling  cider,  except  in  its  nau- 
seous smell,  and  is  much  used  by  the  Mexicans  under  the  name  of 
"pulque."  The  fibers  are  manufactured  into  thread.  The  juice  when 
dried  or  vaporized  becomes  a  useful  soap.  A  variety  in  cultivation 
has  its  leaves  beautifully  striped. 


LXX.  THE  SEDGES.     GALINGALE. 

Description. — The  Sedges  bear  a  general  resemblance  to 
the  Grasses,  and  are  often,  by  the  unlearned,  mistaken  for 
them.  Both  grow  in  similar  situations,  but  in  low,  wet 
lands  the  Sedges  usually  prevail.  They  are  generally  known 
by  their  solid  (not  hollow)  stems  and  entire  (not  split) 

*  Herbs  fruiting  after  a  long  term  of  years  only  once  and  then  dying,  are  said  to 
be  monocarpic.  Such  also  is  the  Talipot  Palm  of  Ceylon. 


264 


THE    SEDGES. 


sheaths.*  Being,  like  the 
Grasses,  almost  ubiquitous, 
specimens  may  be  culled 
in  great  variety,  during 
Spring  and  Summer,  in 
the  meadows,  fields,  open 
woods,  or  even  in  the  gar- 
dens. 

Analysis.  —  GENERIC 
CHARACTERS. — Let  us  be- 
gin with  the  Galingales — 
a  genus  of  Sedges  known 
at  sight  by  their  terminal 
umbels  of  flattened  (2-edged)  spikes.    In 
these  specimens,  fresh  or  dried,  the  culms 
(so  the  peculiar,  jointed  stems  of  grass- 
like  plants  are   called)   are  triangular, 
erect,  leafy  below,  solid  with  pith.     Thev 
Leaves  are  linear,  parallel-veined,  sup- 
ported   on    sheaths   which    are    closed 
around  the  culm  below,  never  split  as 
in  the  Grasses. 

Inflorescence.  The  umbel  is  sub- 
tended by  an  involucre  composed  of  sev- 
eral unequal  leaves, 
and  its  very  unequal 
rays  (peduncles)  are 
each  sheathed  at  the 
base. 
The  lowers  occupy  the  spikes,  which 


FIG.  LXX.  —  Cype'rus 
di&ndrus : ./?,  a  flower;  gl, 
glume ;  Ach.,  achenium. 


*  The  student  will  not  mistake  for  Sedges  those 
Rushes  which  have  regular,  3-parted,  green  flowers  with 
3  sepals,  3  petals,  6  stamens,  3  stigmas,  and  several  seeds 
in  the  capsule,  as  seen  much  magnified  in  the  cut. 


5,  a  flower  of  a  Rush 
(Luzula). 


CAEEX.  265 

are  composed  of  imbricated  bractlets  called  scales  or  glumes 
arranged  alternately  and  in  2  rows.  Each  glume,  except  the 
lowest,  conceals  in  its  axil  one  minute,  naked  flower  consist- 
ing of  a  1-ovuled  ovary  with  3  (rarely  2)  stigmas  and  3 
(rarely  fewer)  stamens. 

The  Fruit  is  an  achenium  2  or  3-angled,  its  seed  with  a 
minute  embryo  in  the  end  of  the  mealy  albumen. 

SPECIFIC  CH^HACTERS. — Fig.  LXX  portrays  a  common 
Sedge,  called  Brown  Galingale.  The  root  is  annual  and 
fibrous.  The  culms  rise  4^10',  sheathed  and  leafy  below, 
naked  above,  bearing  a  simple  umbel  with  several  rays  and 
an  involucre  of  3  very  unequal  leaves.  The  spikes  are  clus- 
tered on  the  rays,  oblong,  obtuse,  flat,  about  8-flowered,  and 
usually  brown  in  color.  The  tiny  flower  beneath  each  glume 
except  the  lowest  one  has  only  2  stamens  and  2  stigmas,  and 
finally  an  achenium  2-edged. 

The  Name. — This  pretty  plant  represents  the  genus 
Cyperus — a  genus  of  immense  extent,  dedicated  to  the 
Cyprian  queen,  Venus,  the  fabled  goddess  of  beauty.  *  The 
species  is  C.  didndrus,  or  the  Two-stamened  Cyperus,  so 
named  by  the  late  Dr.  Torrey,f  on  account  of  the  rare  spe- 
cific character  thus  denoted. 

Scientific  Terms.— Culm.    Glume.    Rays.    Scale.    Spike. 


LXXI.  THE  SEDGES.     CAREX. 

Description. — There  is  scarcely  any  kind  of  soil  or 
locality  where  a  Carex  may  not  grow.  Look  for  them  in 
forest,  field  or  meadow,  on  mountains  or  prairies,  in  lands 

*  Cyperus  includes  not  less  than  350  species,  of  which  about  40  are  natives  of  the 
United  States. 

t  John  Torrey,  M.D.,  professor  of  Chemistry  at  West  Point  and  Princeton,  and 
of  Botany  in  Columbia  College,  died  1873,  set,??;  among  American  botanists  pre-emi- 
nent, beloved  and  revered  as  an  instructor,  friend  and  Christian. 


266 


THE    SEDGES. 


shady  or  arid,  loamy  or  rocky, 
in  sands  or  peat-bogs — any- 
where, and  the  search  need 
not  be  long.  They  are  read- 
ily known  from  other  Sedges 
by  having  their  flowers  all 
imperfect,  either  $  or  $  ,  and 
the  achenium  inclosed  in  a 
bottle-shaped  sack. 

Analysis. — 1.  GENERIC 
CHARACTERS.  —  Having  in 
hand  a  Carex,  or  any  num- 
ber of  them,  fresh  or  dried, 
their  features  may  be  traced 
as  follows :  A  triangular 
culm,  or  a  cluster  of  culms, 
beset  with  grass-like  leaves, 
bears  one  or  several,  often 
many,  greenish  spikes.  Thev 
spikes  are  terete,  composed  of 
glumes  (or  scales)  spirally 
imbricated,  and  bearing  in 
the  axil  of  each  glume  (ex- 
cept the  lower)  a  single 
flower. 

The  Flowers  are  all  im- 
perfect, either  staminate  (  $  ) 
or  pistillate  (  $ ),  and  vari- 
ously disposed.  In  some 
species,  the  $  and  $  together 
occupy  the  same  spike  or 
spikes  (androgynous) ;  in 
other  species  they  occupy  separate  spikes  on  the  same  plant 


FIG.  LXXI.— Carex  bullata  :  2,  a  ster- 
ile flower  ;  3,  a  fertile  flower  dissected, 
showing  the  glume,  ovary  and  stigmas  ; 
4,  section  showing  the  solid  culm  and 
equitant  vernation. 


CAEEX. 


267 


(monoecious)  ;  and  in  a  few  others,  separate  spikes  on  sepa- 
rate plants  (dioecious).  The  $  flowers  consist  of  3  stamens, 
with  anthers  attached  to  the  filament  by  the  base,  i.  e.,  innate. 

The  ?  is  an  ovary  invested  with 
a  sack  (perigynium)  composed  of 
2  united  glumes.  The  2  or  three 
stigmas  project  from  the  beak  or 
orifice  of  the  perigynium  which 
finally  incloses  the  achenium. 

2.  SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS. — 
Among  the  multitudinous  forms 
of  Carex,  we  select  the  two  shown 
in  the  cuts,  common  in  our  wet 
meadows.  The  Jewelled  Carex 
(Fig.  LXXI,  1),  may  be  distin- 
guished thus :  A 
smooth,  light- 
green  Carex,  2 
feet  high,  with 
narrow  leaves  and 
bracts,  monoe- 
cious, with  the 
sterile  (  $  )  spikes 
2  or  3,  and  the  fer- 
tile (?)  1  or  2, 
oval  or  oblong,  on 
very  short  pedun- 
cles ;  the  perigy- 
nia  turgid-ovoid, 
reclining,  taper- 
ing into  a  long, 
straight,  rough  beak,  much  longer  than  the  lanceolate 
glume  ;  stigmas  3,  achenium  3-cornered. 


5,  Carex  flava ;  6,  a  glume ;  7,  a  flower  (perigynium) 
with  3  stigmas  issuing  from  the  orifice  ;  8,  ?  flower  of  Carex 
rivularis  ;  g,  the  glume,  p,  the  bottle-shaped  perigynium 
2-toothed  at  top,  enveloping  the  ovary ;  stigmas  3 ;  9,  a 
perfect  flower  of  Scirpus  lucustris,  with  6  setae,  3  stamens, 
3  stigmas. 


268  THE    SEDGES. 

The  Yellow  Carex  is  thus  distinguished  : 

Inflorescence  monoecious,  $  spike  single,  ?  spikes  2. 

Stigmas  3,  and  the  achenium  therefore  3-jcornered. 

Peduncles  (  ?  )  scarcely  exserted  from  the  sheaths. 

Perigynia  smooth,  crowded,  inflated,  longer  than  the  glume,  ovoid, 
tapering  into  a  slender  recurved  beak. 

The  whole  plant  is  yellowish-green,  10-20'  high.  The  $  spike  is  ter- 
minal, cylindric,  10-12"  long,  the  ?  spikes  roundish  to  oval,  4-7''  long. 

The  Name,  Carex,  is  the  old  Latin  name  for  these 
plants,*  from  careo,  I  want ;  as  the  upper  flowers  are  con- 
stantly without  seed.  C.  bullata,  the  Jewelled  Carex,  is 
named  for  its  stud-like  perigynia  ;  C.  flava,  the  Yellow 
Carex,  alluding  to  the  yellowish  herbage.  Carex  is  the 
largest  genus  in  the  Flora  of  North  America.! 

Classification. — These  examples  must  suffice  to  repre- 
sent the  great  order  of  the  Sedges — the  CYPEKACE^E,  known 
by  the  following  traits  : 

Culms  solid  with  pith.  , 

Leaves  linear,  channelled,  with  closed  sheaths. 
Flowers  spicate,  one  in  the  axil  of  each  glume- 
Perianth  none,  or  a  few  seta,  or  &  perigynium. 
Anthers  generally  3,  fixed  by  the  base  (innate), 
Pistil  1-ovuled,  with  2  or  3  stigmas. 
Fruit  an  achenium  2-edged  or  3  cornered. 

The  Order  Of  the  Sedges  includes  120  genera,  and  2000  species. 
They  inhabit  all  climes  and  countries,  but  chiefly  the  meadows,  marshes 
and  swamps  of  the  temperate  zones.  They  are  of  slight  use  as  food, 
or  in  the  arts.  They  differ  from  the  grasses  in  having  little  sugar  or 
starch,  and  so  form  a  poor  pasture. 

The  Nut-grass  of  the  S.  States,  the  pest  of  the  Cotton-fields,  is  Cyperus 
Hydra.  It  multiplies  by  creeping  roots  and  tubers  in  spite  of  hoe  and 
plough.  The  tubers  of  C.  esculentus,  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, may  be  boiled  for  food,  or  roasted  for  Coffee.  The  roots  of  C. 


*  See  Virg.  Eel.,  Ill,  20.  "  Tu  post  carecta  latebras."  Ycni  hid  behind  the  Sedges. 
The  English  term  Sedge  comes  from  the  Saxon  scecg,  a  sword. 

t  About  500  species  have  beeu  described,  of  which  200  are  natives  of  the  United 
States. 


CAEEX. 


269 


rottindus  contain  an  aromatic  oil ;  those  of  C.  longus  are  tonic  and 
astringent. 

The  Mat-grasses,  growing  on  sandy  shores  and  dikes,  securing  them 
against  the  incursions  of  the  sea  or  the  drifting  winds,  include  some 
species  of  Carex,  as  C.  arendria,  C.  fcena,  C.  ripdria,  etc.  The  roots 
of  C.  arendria  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  Sarsaparilla. 


OKGAN. 

Lite,  5abit,  dumber,  Place,  Dehiscence,  JHnd,  Construc- 
tion, ^orm.  Size,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

24  ,  grass-like,  20-30'  high,  light-green. 

Root,  L.Q. 

24,  numerous  fibers  from  creeping  rhizomes. 

Culm,  L.H.F.S.Q. 

Herbaceous,  erect,  triang.,  solid,  smoothish. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.Q. 

Alternate,  equitant  at  base,  linear. 

Sheaths,  C.S.Q. 

Clasping  the  culm  with  joined  edges,  smooth. 

Inflorescence,  P.  K.F.  A. 

Spikes  terminal,  and  in  the  upper  axils,  mostly  on  pedun- 
cles, with  bracts,  and  terete. 

Involucre,  N.K.S. 

None. 

Spikes,  N.K.F.S  Q. 

t,2or3,  terete,  acute,  1'  and  less  ;   ?  ,  1  or  2  below 
oval  or  oblong.,  short-pedunculate. 

the  i, 

Flowers,  N.K.C. 

Many,  ?  and  6  ,  the  sterile  naked  (no  perianth). 

Glumes,  N.P.F. 

One  subtending  each  flower,  ovate. 

Perianth,  N.P.K.S.Q. 

Perigynium  turgid,  abruptly  long-beaked. 

Anthers,  N.C.D. 

3,  innate,  linear,  %-celled  longitudinally. 

Stigmas,  N.F. 

3,  issuing  from  the  2-toothed  orifice. 

Grain,  K.F.A. 

Achenium  triangular-obovoid. 

Seed,  N.K.C. 

One. 

LOCALITY.—  River  banks,  Fordham,  N.  Y.      (Date),  June,  1878. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  GLUMACEOUS  EXOGENS 
—Order,  CYPERACE.E,  THE  SEDGES. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Carex  Itnillata. 

—English,  The  Jewelled  Uarex. 
REMARKS.—  The  perigynium  is  twice  longer  than  the  glume. 

270 


THE    SEDGES. 


Bulrushes,  used  in  making  matting,  chair-bottoms  and  baskets,  are 
the  culms  of  Scirpus  lacustns  and  other  kinds. 

The  Tule,  or  Giant  Rush,  growing  in  inundated  places,  is  Scirpus 
vdlidus.  In  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento,  Cal.,  it  rises  12  feet  high, 
covering  thousands  of  acres. 

The  Cotton  Grass  (Eriophornrri)  is  conspicuous  in  our  wet  northern 
meadows  for  its  airy  cotton-like  tufts  waving  in  the  wind.  These  tufts 


6,  Cyperus  Papyrus.  A 
scene  in  ancient  Thebes,  on 
the  Kiver  Nile. 


are    composed    of    the 

long  hairs,  called  setce, 

growing    in     each     of 

the  crowded  flowers,  in 
the  place  of  a  perianth.  Five  species  are  described  in  our  floras 
(Botanist  and  Florist,  p.  362),  of  which  E.  Virginicum,  with  reddish 
cotton,  displays  the  largest  tufts. 

The  Rush  or  Bulrush  of  the  Nile  (Hebrew,  Gome,  Exodus  ii.,  3)  is 
Papprus  antiquorum  (Willd.),  or  as  now  called,  Cyperus  Papprus  (Linn.). 


POA.  271 

It  is  a  gigantic  Sedge,  10-15  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  compound 
umbel  of  numerous  rays  and  bracts.  Its  spreading  rhizomes  have 
helped  to  consolidate  the  mud  of  the  Delta.  Its  tall,  stout  culms  were 
used  in  making  boats,  baskets,  ropes,  and  fuel,  as  the  name  implies 
(Gr.  pao,  to  feed,  pyr,  fire).  The  earliest  and  rudest  paper  (hence  the 
name)  was  manufactured  from  its  pith — the  cellular  tissue  which  fills 
its  culms.*  Its  graceful  form  affords  a  favorite  theme  for  artists. 

Scientific  Terms.— Androgynous.  Beak.  Equitant.  Glumes. 
Innate  anther.  Monoecious.  Orifice.  Perigynium.  Spikes. 

LXXII.   THE   GRASSES. 

Description. — These  modest  and  useful  plants  are  every- 
where at  hand,  mantling  the  hills,  meadows,  and  val- 
leys with  their  soft,  uniform  green,  beginning  to  open 
their  colorless  flowers  early  in  June  or  sooner.  A  variety  of 
such  specimens  is  before  us  to-day,  unpromising  indeed. 
But  we  cannot  fail  to  find  the  examination  full  of  profit 
and  agreeable  surprise.  Our  cuts  represent  three  common 
Grasses,  with  flowers  simultaneous,  and  quite  dissimilar. 

Analysis  (generic). — The  Itoot  of  all  these  is  inaxial 
(110  tap  root),  consisting  of  many  strong  fibers  taking  a  firm 
hold  of  the  soil  and  helping  to  bind  it  into  a  matted  turf. 

The  Stem  is  somewhat  enlarged  or  bulbous  at  the  base, 
terete  above,  conspicuously  jointed  at  intervals,  hollow  OTjls- 
tular  between  the  joints.  Stems  of  this  kind  are  called  culms. 

The  Z/eaves  are  alternate,  parallel-veined,  constructed 
in  3  parts.  The  lower  part,  from  the  joint  upward,  is  the 
sheafh,  answering  to  petiole,  enfolding  the  stem  with  edges 
overlapping  beyond — not  united.  The  blade  is  strictly 
linear.  At  the  junction  of  the  sheath  and  the  blade  is  a 
short  membrane  called  Ugule,  answering  to  stipules. 

*  The  mode  of  preparing  this  paper  was  very  simple.  The  stem  was  peeled  and 
the  pith  cut  lengthwise  into  thin  slices.  These  were  then  laid  side  by  side  with  their 
edges  touching,  and  sprinkled  with  the  muddy  water  of  the  Nile.  Another  row  of 
pith-slices  was  then  laid  transversely  upon  the  first,  and  by  pressure  the  whole  mass 

nnitprl  intn  ft  rnmnnrt:  shApt. 


272 


THE    GRASSES. 


The  Inflorescence  is  variously  developed  in  these  speci- 
mens. Generally  it  appears  as  in  Spear  Grass  (Fig.  LXXII), 
a  branching  pyramidal  bouquet — a  panicle,  differing  from  a 

raceme  inasmuch  as  the 
branches  are  branched 
again.  It  is  well  to  ob- 
serve whether  the  branches 
are  grouped  in  5s,  2s,  or 
Is.  In  other  specimens  the 
inflorescence  is  contracted 
into  a  spike  or  a  spike-like 
panicle.  The  flowers  are 
collected  into  little  clusters 
called  spikelets.  Let  us 
here  take  up  a  spikelet  of 
Spear-grass  (Fig.  LXXII,!), 
which  we  may  study  as  a 
type  of  all.  It  is  scarcely  2" 
in  length,  ovate-lanceolate v 


FIG.  LXXII.— Poa  prat6nsis  (a  depauperate  specimen,  for  the  branches  are  usually 
in  5s) :  1,  a  spikelet  with  2  glumes  and  4  flowers ;  2,  a  single  flower ;  3,  ovary  and 
feathery  stigmas ;  4,  ripe  kernel  enclosed  in  the  2  pales  ;  5,  Poa  d^bilis  ;  g,  spikelet, 
3-ttowered  ;  /,  a  flower  ;  6,  a  spikelet  of  Phleum  pratense  :  a,  the  2  awned  glumes  ; 
£,  the  2  pales  and  ovary. 

in  outline.  At  the  base  are  2  chaffy  bractlets — the  glumes 
(g).  Within  and  above  the  glumes  are  4  flowers  (more  or 
less),  alternate,  imbricated  when  closed.  Such  is  a  spikelet. 


POA. 


273 


OKGAN. 

Life,  Habit,  dumber,  Place,  7i'ind,  Construction,  Form, 
Size,  Ztehiscence,  Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

2f  ,  gross-like,  2-3  feet,  dark  green. 

Root,  L.K. 

n  ,  many  branching  fibers. 

Culm,  L.H.F.S.Q. 

Herbaceous,  erect,  simple,  terete,  hollow,  smooth. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.Q. 

Alternate,  flat,  broad-linear,  rough-edged. 

Sheath,  C.S.Q. 

Loose,  with  edges  free,  smooth,  striate. 

Ligule,  F.S.Q. 

Very  short  or  obsolete. 

Inflorescence,P.K.F.A. 

Panicle  somewhat  secund,  slender,  9',  the  branches  short. 

Spikelet,  N.K.F.S.Q. 

Fewer,  lanceolate,  terete,  acute,  7"-8". 

Flowers,  N.K. 

6-9,  perfect. 

Glumes,  N.P.F.S.Q, 

2,  upper  one  larger,  3-veined,  scarious  on  the  margin. 

Pales,  N.P.K.Q, 

2,  the  lower  one  5-veined,  acute. 

Awns,  P.F.S.Q. 

None. 

Rudiments,  K.F.Q. 

None. 

Anthers,  N.P.C.D. 

3,  exserted,  %-celled,  versatile,  longitudinal. 

Stigmas,  N.C.F. 

2,  plumous,  shorter  than  pales. 

Grain,  K.F. 

Caryopsis,  oblong. 

Seed,  N.K.C. 

One. 

LOCALITY.—  Meadows,  Chester,  Penn.    (Date),  June,  1876. 
CLASSIFICATION.—  GLUMACEOUS  ENDOGENS. 
—  Order,  GKAMINEJE,  TUB  GKASSES. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Pestuca  prateusis. 

—English,  Meadow  Fescue. 
REMARKS.—  Spikelets  somewhat  racemed  in  the  branches. 

The  Flower.  A  common  lens  will  be  helpful  in  view- 
ing the  blossom.  Take  it  while  it  is  open,  or  in  bloom,  as 
many  are  every  dewy  morning.  First,  2  chaffy  bractlets, 


274  THE    OKCHAED    GEASS. 

the  pales,  are  seen  expanded,  one  a  little  above  the  other,  as 
in  the  glumes ;  next,  3  stamens  with  gossamer  filaments 
and  versatile  anthers ;  lastly,  an  ovary  with  2  feathery 
stigmas.  In  a  few  days  the  ovary  is  matured  into  a  caryop- 
sis — a  one-seeded  fruit  like  a  grain  of  wheat,  whose  shell  or 
pericarp  is  inseparable  from  the  seed. 

Fertilization.—  There  are  no  bright  colors  in  these 
flowers  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  insect  tribes,  nor  honey  to 
attract  them.  Insect  aid  in  fertilization  does  not  here  seem 
necessary.  The  pollen  is  conveyed  by  the  wind.  To  this 
end,  the  Grasses  grow  together  in  dense  crowds  and  the 
pollen  is  superabundant,  probably  a  thousandfold,  filling 
the  breeze  so  that  the  plume  of  every  stigma  is  sure  to  catch 
at  least  one  grain  either  from  its  own  or  other  anthers. 

The  Name,  Poa  pratensis — Poa,  Gr.  for  hay  or  fodder ; 
pratensis,  of  the  meadow.  This  plant  is  generally  known  as 
June  Grass,  as  its  grains  are  often  ripe  in  June.  We  have 
other  species  of  Poa,  flowering  a  month  later,  among  which, 
is  the  Blue  Grass  (P.  compressa},  also  the  beautiful'  red- 
tinted  Fowl-Meadow  (P.  serotina).  P.  dnnua  is  the  low, 
soft  Lawn-grass,  flowering  in  April.  * 

Scientific  Terms. — Caryopsis.  Culm.  Glumes.  Inaxial  root. 
Ligule.  Pales.  Panicle.  Sheath.  Spikelets. 

LXXIII.   THE   ORCHARD   GRASS. 

Description. — This  is  a  conspicuous  and  very  common 
herb  in  orchards  and  groves.  It  is  tall  and  stout  compared 
with  Spear-grass  ;  in  color,  glaucus  or  seagreen. 

*  The  Annual  Meadow  Grass  (P.  dnnua)  and  Shepherd's  Purse  are,  perhaps,  the 
most  common  plants  in  the  world.  On  almost  every  waste  spot  where  even  a  weed 
can  grow— on  the  bank  by  the  roadside,  along  the  garden  path,  between  the  stones  of 
the  city  pavement,  high  up  in  the  mountain  as  well  as  in  the  rich  meadow  at  its  foot 
—these  modest  plants  display  their  cheerful  verdure. 


DACTYLIS. 


Analysis. — The  student  will  analyze  throughout  as  we 
have  done  in  Spear-grass,  making  special  note  of  the  points 
of  difference  in  the  two  plants,  such  as  the  following. 

The  Orchard-grass 
is  rough  to  the  touch 
— s  ca~brous.  The 
leaves  and  even  the 
sheaths  are  decided- 
ly keeled  (carinate, 
or  boat-shaped). 

The  ligule  is  ex- 
cessively large,  and 
split  or  bifid. 

The  branches  of 
the  panicle  are  sin- 
gle. 

The  spikelets  are 
collected  in  dense, 
one-sided  (secund) 
clusters.  While 
closed  they  are  lance- 
olate, 2-3"  long, 
about  4  -  flowered, 
with  the  flowers  a 
little  separated  on 
the  rachis.  The  2 
glumes  and  the  lower 
pale  are  rough-ciliate 
(with  a  row  of  short 

hairs)    On   the  keels,  FlG   LXXIII.-Dactylis  glomerata:  1,  a  spikelet 

and      narrowed      to      with  2  Slumesi  4  flowers  and  1  rudiment ;  2,  a  flower. 

an  awn-like  point.    There  are  3  stamens,  2  feathery  stigmas, 
and  a  lanceolate  grain  free  from  the  pales. 


276 


SWEET    VERNAL    GRASS. 


The  Name. — Ddctylis  glomerata  (Dactylis,  fingers,  glo- 
merata, crowded),  is  the  significant  title. 

Scientific  Terms. — Carinate.    Ciliate.     Secund.     Scabrous. 


LXXIV.  SWEET  VERNAL  GRASS. 

The  Sweet  Vernal 
Grass  begins  to  flower  a 
few  days  earlier  than 
Spear-grass,  in  the  same 
situations.  The  analy- 
sis of  its  root,  culm, 
leaves  and  inflorescence 
may  be  conducted  as  in 
that  plant,  searching  for 
differences  as  well  as 
analogies. 

Analysis.-The  leaf- 
blade  and    sheath    are 
very   short,   while    the 
internode  is  very  long. 
The  ligule  is  conspicu- 
ous.   The  panicle  is  con- 
tracted to  the  form  of  a  loose  spike 
or  raceme. 

The  Spiketel  is  3-4"  long.  It 
consists,  1st,  of  2  glumes,  the  lower 
twice  longer  than  the  upper ;  2d, 
of  ciliated  pales  supposed  to  be  2 
rudimentary  flowers,  each  bearing 
an  awn  on  its  back  ;  3d,  one  per- 
fect flower  situated  between  the  2 
rudiments,  that  is,  terminal. 


FIG.  LXXIV.—  Anthoxantkum 
odoratum. 


ANTHOXANTHUM. 


277 


The  Flower  is  diandrous,  composed  of  2  small,  smooth 
pales,  2  long  stamens  with  versatile  double  anthers,  and  an 
ovary  with  2  styles  bearing  plumous  stigmas  as  long  as  the 
stamens.*  Finally  the  grain  or  caryopsis  resembles  a  wheat 
kernel,  but  many  times  smaller. 

The  Name. — To  this  fine  Grass,  which  is  widely  dis- 
persed over  Europe  as  well  as  America, 
Linnasus  gave  the, name  of  Anthoxdn- 
thum  odoratum,  meaning  either 
"Sweet-smelling  yellow  flowers"  or 
"  Sweet-smelling  flower  of  flowers." 
But  its  flowers  are  not  sweet-smelling, 
yet  its  herbage  when  cut  imparts  to 
the  drying  hay  much  of  its  delicious 
fragrance. 

Thus  we  have  analyzed  three  genera 
of  Grasses.  In  addition,  let  the  stu- 
dent study  the  Red-top,  whose  spike- 
lets  are  simply  1-flowered ;  Wheat, 
Oats,  and  Corn.  In  the  latter  the 
flowers  of  the  tassel  are  all  staminate  ; 
of  the  ear  all  pistillate. 

Germination .  In  the  Exogens,  as  we  have  often  seen, 
the  embryo  of  the  seed  has  two  lobes  or  cotyledons,  or  as 
botanists  say,  is  dicotyledonous.  In  the  Endogeiis,  the  em- 
bryo is  more  simple,  being  generally  an  oblong  body  (Fig. 
LXXVIII,  10),  of  which  one  end  is  a  radicle  and  the  other  a 
plumule  wrapped  up  in  a  single  cotyledon,  only  its  end  being 
visible.  The  nourishment  is  partly  in  the  cotyledon  and 
mostly  the  mealy  albumen  on  one  side  of  it.  In  germina- 


2,  Agr&stis  vnlgaris,  a,  1- 
flowered  spikelet  ;  ft,  the 
flower  removed  from  its 
glumes  ;  3,  Agrdstis  scabra  ; 
c,  the  2  glumes  separated 
from  (d)  the  single  flower. 


*  We  cannot  fail  to  observe  the  special  adaptation  of  these  flowers  to  wind-fertili- 
zation. Their  long  exserted  stamens  and  stigmas  are  lifted  to  the  breeze  like  waving 
banners.  The  anthers  opening  their  whole  length,  swing  nicely  balanced  and  tremu- 
lous, while  the  stigmas  wave  their  plumes  to  catch  the  flying  pollen  grains. 


278 


SWEET   VERNAL   GRASS. 


tion  the  cotyledon  never  arises  above  the  ground  but  remains 
with  the  seed. 

Let  a  few  kernels  of  corn  be  placed  on  a  lock  of  cotton  in 
a  glass  of  water.  After  a  day  or  tAVO  the  albumen  has  soft- 
ened, swelled,  and  become  sweetish.  In  3  days  the  radicle 

(r)  has  pushed  out  and 
turned  downward,  while 
the  cotyledon  has  extend- 
ed itself  backward  a  little, 
and  freed  the  end  of  the 
plumule,  but  still  holding 
fast  above  to  the  albumen 
whence  yet  comes  its  nour- 
ishment. Another  day,  the 
plumule  pushes  out  from 
the  cotyledon,  and  begins 
to  ascend  as  the  first  leaf, 
while  the  radicle  grows' 
and  develops  some  side 
rootlets.  Another  day  we 
see  a  second  leaf  push  out 
from  the  first,  both  still 
rolled  up  (convolute),  and 
so  on,  one  after  another, 
in  the  order  of  a  spiral. 

Classification. — The  order  of  the  Grasses — GRAMIKE^B 
— includes  300  genera  and  nearly  4000  species,  and  limited 
as  follows  : 

Plants  endogenous,  with  fibrous  roots. 

Culms  hollow  between  the  solid  joints. 

Leaves  alternate,  on  open  or  split  sheaths,  with  a  ligule. 

Flowers  in  spikelets  with  alternate  glumes  and  pales. 

Stamens  3  (rarely  1-6),  exserted,  versatile. 

Ovary  with  2  plumous  stigmas  and  one  ovule. 

Fruit  a  caryopsis,  with  flowery  albumen. 


4,  Germination  of  Maize  (or  Indian  Corn) 
o,  the  kernel  or  albumen  ;  r,  the  radicle  ;  p 
plumule. 


279 

The  Order  of  the  Grasses  prevails  wherever  there 
is  a  soil,  in  all  countries  and  climes,  varying  in  species  and 
habit  with  the  climate.  In  cool,  temperate  regions,  they  are 
dwarfed  and  crowded,  forming  a  soft  carpet  of  turf.  In 


6,  creeping  rhizome  of  Witch  Grass  (Triticum  repens). 

warm  or  torrid  regions  they  form  no  turf,  but  grow  apart, 
enlarged,  even  arising  into  trees  like  the  stately  Bamboo. 

The  order  is  no  less  valuable  to  man  than  vast  in  extent. 
It  furnishes  sweet  herbage  as  fodder  for  animals,  and  farina- 
ceous grains  as  food  for  man.  No  poisonous  herb  is  found 
among  them  except  perhaps  the  Darnel.* 

The  Common  Oat,  Avena  satwa,  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the  Island 
of  Juan  Fernandez.  Its  grain  is  richly  nutritious  both  for  man  and 
beast.  The  grain  is  firmly  inclosed  in  its  husk — the  pales — from  which 
it  is  first  separated  in  the  manufacture  of  oat-meal.  The  Wild  Oat, 
or  Animated  Oat,  is  Avena  fdtua.  Its  long  hygrometric  awn  is  put  in 
motion  by  slight  changes  in  the  moisture  of  the  air. 

Barley  is  the  grain  of  Hordeum  dfatichum  and  H.  vulgdre,  the  former 
the  Two-rowed,  the  latter  the  Four-rowed.  Native  country  unknown. 

Rye  (Secdle  ceretlle)  is  next  to  Wheat  in  value  for  bread-making.  It 
is  chiefly  cultivated  in  Russia  and  Germany. 

*  Said  to  be  a  narcotic  poison  ;  but  this  has  not  been  fully  proved.  It  is  the  same 
plant  (Lolium  ternulentum)  alluded  to  in  St.  Matthew  as  Tares.  Some  Grasses  with 
creeping  subterranean  stems,  as  Quick  Grass  (Triticum  repens)  are  troublesome  weeds. 
Others  of  similar  habit,  as  Elymus  arenariits,  Psamma  arenaria,  bind  the  loose  sand 
of  the  sea-shore  together,  preventing  incursions  of  the  sea.  Numerous  floating  islands 
in  the  River  Amazon  are  formed  chiefly  of  Grasses.  They  are  called  Llhas  cle  Capim. 
Some  of  these  islands  are  acres  in  extent,  and  from  5  to  8  feet  of  their  thickness  is 
under  water.  (See  Harper's  Magazine,  February,  1879.) 


280  SWEET    VERNAL    GEASS. 

Wheat  (Triticum  sativum),  as  the  food  of  civilized  man,  is  the  most 
valuable  of  all  grains.  It  has  been  so  long  and  so  extensively  culti- 
vated that  it  has  sported  into  innumerable  varieties,  and  its  nativity  is 
unknown. 

Rice  (Oryza  sativa)  is  said  to  be  the  food  of  a  majority  of  the 
human  race,  being  the  staple  diet  of  China  and  the  East  Indies.  It 
is  largely  cultivated  in  S.  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Florida,  in  lands 
inundated  for  this  purpose. 

Indian  Rice,  or  Wild  Rice,  is  the  grain  of  Zizdnia  aqudtica  of  river 
marshes  in  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States. 

Indian  Corn  (Zea  mays)  is  a  native  of  America,  unknown  to  Euro 
peans  until  the  discovery  of  the  New  World.  The  vast  extent  to  which 
it  is  now  cultivated  indicates  its  value.  Among  its  many  varieties  are 
Sweet  Corn,  Pop  Corn,  and  Rice  Corn. 

Sugar  Cane  (Sacchdrum  officindrum)  is  an  important  member  of  this 
Order,  cultivated  in  warm  climates.  It  is  the  source  of  nearly  all  the 
sugar  consumed  by  civilized  nations.  The  juice  is  expressed  from  the 
stalks  and  evaporated  until  crystallized. 

Various  species  of  Sorghum  have  been  cultivated  for  sugar  with 
poor  success. 

Broom  Corn  is  Sorghum  mcchardtum,  a  native  of  Arabia.  Its  use  in 
broom  making  is  well  understood. 

Pampas  Grass  (Gynvrium  argcntenm)  is  native  of  S.  America,  culti- 
vated for  its  splendid  plume-like  panicles  of  silvery  whiteness. 

Bamboo  (Barribma  arundindcem),  growing  in  all  tropical  lands, 
attains  a  height  of  50  to  80  feet,  with  a  culm  10  inches  thick— trees  of 
exceeding  beauty  and  grace.  Bamboos  are  variously  useful  for  "fish- 
ing-rods, water-pipes,  trellis- work,  scaffolding,  sails,  umbrellas,  hats, 
shields,  baskets,  ropes,  paper." 

Hay  is  the  dried  herbage  of  many  grasses  cut  when  in  or  just  past 
flowering.  Some  of  the  best  for  this  purpose  are  the  following  :  Tim- 
othy (Phleum  pratense) ;  Redtop  (Agrostis  vulgdris) ;  Bluejoint  (Gala- 
magrostis  Canadensis) ;  Orchard  Grass  (Ddctylis  glomezdtd) ;  Spear  or 
June  Grass  (Poa  pratensis) ;  Fowl  Meadow  (Poa  serotind) ;  Fescue 
(Festuca  pratensis) ;  Blue  Grass  (Poa  compressd),  Chess  (Bromus  secdle) ; 
Salt  Meadow  Grass  (Bryzopyrum  spicdtum). 

Scientific  Terms.— Awns.     Rudimentary.     Versatile  anthers. 


APPENDIX. 


CLASSIFICATION. 

In  the  foregoing  lessons  we  have  hastily  traversed  the 
Vegetable  World,  pausing  here  and  there,  in  such  tribes  and 
families  as  offered  special  attractions,  to  gain  information 
more  definite  and  minute.  We  have  observed  that  while 
there  is  found  in  every  species  some  one  fact  or  principle 
peculiar  to  itself  alone,  yet  each  plant  bears  a  resemblance, 
greater  or  less,  to  every  other  plant,  so  that  a  bond  of  affinity 
pervades  the  entire  kingdom,  combining  all  into  one  grand 
system,  which  to  interpret  aright  is  the  glory  of  Man. 

Species  and  Genera. — The  individual  plants  consti- 
tuting the  Vegetable  World,  so  vast  and  incomprehensible 
in  multitude,  are,  as  we  have  seen,  assorted  by  nature  into 
species.  A  species  may  be  denned  as  a  group  endowed  with 
the  power  of  perpetuating  its  own  kind  and  no  other,  and 
thus  is  maintained  the  same  from  age  to  age.  Again,  the 
species  themselves,  by  their  mutual  resemblances,  are 
grouped  into  genera.  A  genus  is  defined  as  a  group  of 
closely  related  species,  having  more  resemblances  than 
differences. 

Orders. — The  third  step  in  Classification  is  the  formation 
of  orders.  As  species  are  grouped  into  genera,  so  the  genera 
are  collected  into  orders.  An  order  may  be  defined,  an 
assemblage  of  related  genera.  The  orders  differ  greatly  in 
respect  to  their  extent,  some  including  few  genera,  or  even 


APPENDIX. 


CLASSIFICATION.  283 

but  a  single  genus  (as  Platanaceae,  the  Plane-trees),  while 
others  comprehend  a  hundred,  or  even  a  thousand,  as 
Umbelliferse,  and  CompositaB. 

Cohorts,  etc. — Again,  the  orders,  by  some  one  or  few 
traits  which  they  possess  in  common,  are  marshaled  into 
Cohorts ;  the  cohorts  into  Classes,  and  the  classes  into 
Provinces. 

Subkingdoms.—  Viewed  as  a  whole,  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom  subsists  in  two  grand  divisions,  called  the  Pheno- 
gamia  and  Cryptogamia,  as  first  shown  by  John  Kay  of 
England,  1682.  This  division  depends  on  the  habitual  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  visible  flowers,  and  is  confirmed  by  im- 
portant differences  of  internal  structure,  and  of  seeds.  (See 
pp.  16,  27,  43.) 

Provinces. — Each  subkingdom  is  again  divided  into  two 
provinces.  1st.  The  province  Exogens  includes  all  such 
flowering  plants  as  have  seeds  with  2  or  more  cotyledons  in 
the  embryo,  wood  growing  by  external  layers,  leaves  net- 
veined,  and  their  flowers  never  (or  very  rarely)  3-parted. 
2d.  The  province  Endogens  includes  all  flowering  plants 
which  have  seeds  with  one  cotyledon  only,  wood  growing  by 
internal  accretions,  leaves  parallel-veined,  and  flowers  habit- 
ually 3-parted.  3d.  The  province  Acrogens  includes  all 
flowerless  plants  with  stems  growing  in  length,  or  at  the 
point  (akros)  only ;  as  Ferns  and  Mosses.  4th.  The  prov- 
ince Thallogens,  is  composed  of  plants  of  the  lowest  orders, 
growing  indefinitely  in  shapeless  expansions  with  no  distinct 
axis ;  as  Lichen's. 

Classes. — The  subdivisions  of  the  provinces  are  called 
Classes ;  there  are  two  of  each.  1st.  The  Exogenous  Angio- 
sperms  have  flowers  with  stigmas,  and  seed-vessels  inclosing 
the  seeds.  2d.  The  Exogenous  Gymnosperms  are  naked- 
seeded,  having  neither  stigmas,  nor  pericarp ;  as  Pinus, 


284  APPEKDIX. 

3d.  The  Endogenous  Petaliferse  have  petals  in  their  flowers, 
while  (4th)  the  Endogenous  Glumiferse  have  green  glumes 
and  pales  instead  of  petals  and  sepals  ;  as  Grasses. 

Cohorts  are  subdivisions  of  the  Classes.  Of  these  the 
Flowering  Plants  include  seven.  A,  the  Polypetalous  Exo- 
gens, with  corolla  of  distinct  petals.  B,  the  Gamopetalous 
Exogens,  with  a  corolla  of  united  petals.  C,  the  Apetalous 
Exogens,  without  petals  and  often  also  without  sepals.  D, 
the  Conoids  (the  same  as  the  Gymnosperms).  seeds  naked, 
and  borne  in  cones.  E,  the  Spadiciflorse,  Endogens  with 
the  flowers  on  a  spadix  involved  in  a  spathe  (example,  Calla). 
F,  the  Florideae,  Endogens  with  flowers  in  racemes,  umbels, 
etc.,  not  on  a  spadix.  G,  the  Graminoids  or  Grass-like 
plants  (same  as  the  Glumiferae). 

The  mutual  relations  of  all  the  above  divisions  will  be  seen 
in  the  following  table,  which  will  also  instantly  indicate  the 
Cohort  to  which  any  plant  in  hand  may  belong  : 


NATURAL    ORDERS. 

OOOOOtOOOOC 


285 


O  TH   O  1C   O  O 

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§H 
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fc  o 
p  ^ 
^  2 

2a 


H 

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SS 
H  tf 

11 

O  ^ 
K  H 
•<  S 


^  H  2  ^        ^ 

iliiMlri 

^i^lliil 

SSSgg«<iHa 
H  pp  <i  >  a  ^  o 

M  ^  P3  ^  g   PH   W 
p-   S  tf  P-  t3  P^  DQ 

H  !>H  <H  <<  p-  <,j  H 
PQ  J2J  02  PH  U  O 


286 


NATURAL    ORDERS. 


>>  o>    £  -£  J 

i?an 

JM 


IS 


gals| 

OQ 


PQ  <j 
S  S  o 

PL,  o  Q  P  <1  Q 


1C   O   OD   O  T-H 
OJ   W   W   CO  (TO 


NATURAL  ORDERS. 


287 


05   10 


CO  J> 

1C   1C 


1C  00 


M 

s 

o 

w 

o 
O 


i|g|h 

o  <i  tf  o'm  5 

j  O  pq  <j  H  cc 


P2 


O 

w  > 

J  ^ 
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288 

8  §  i  g  8  § 

M    <M   iO   CO   O5   CO 


NATURAL    ORDERS. 

o  o 


«  ti 


- 


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lilllllll 


05    ,5«      o    ^^     ^- 

^scH 


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3  &  3  g  3  3 

j  ^  o  o  o  pq 

O  W  O  PH  O}  h^ 
OJ  O  h^  <!  <1  O 


NATURAL    ORDERS. 


289 


co  o  o 

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£§8£§88§i88£ 


TH     1O    TH     T-l 


CO  <N  OS 


CO  1C 


s~     «o  s: 

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«  5?^  ^  ^ 


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h^u^^ 


^  T?  ^  -* 


290 


KATURAL   ORDEKS. 


,il 
§§e 

-  £  3 
^^M 


O   rjl 

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NASTUKTIAN. 


291 


FIG.  XXIII.— Tropfeolum  major  ;  the  leaves  peltate, 
the  flowers  spurred  ;  2,  a  ripe  fruit,  of  3  separable,  one- 
seeded  nutlets  ;  3,  plan  of  the  flower ;  sepals  and  petals 
imbricated  ;  stamens  8,  carpels  3  ;  6,  the  spurred  sepal. 
See  p.  95. 


292 


CICUTA. 


FIG.  XXXIV.— 10,  Cicuta  maculata  (Water  Hemlock) :  11,  a  flower  enlarged  ;  12, 
a  cremocarp  ;  13,  cross-section  of  the  same,  showing  the  place  of  the  8  oil-tubes 
(vittae).  See  p.  137. 


CICUTA. 


293 


ORGAN. 

Life,  7/abit,  dumber,  Place,  Ztehiscence,  /find,  Construc- 
tion, ^orm,  Placentation,  <Slze,  (Dualities,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

U  ,  herb  erect,  branching,  6  feet  high,  glabrous. 

Eoot,  L.K. 

if  ,  of  fibers,  some  of  them  thick,  fleshy,  oblong. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Herbaceous,  terete,  hollow,  striate  or  spotted  with  brown. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Catiline,  comp.,  on  sheathing  petioles  ;  leaflets  lanceolate.* 

Inflorescence,  P.K.A. 

In  terminal,  compound  umbels,  involucre  few-leaved. 

Flower,  N.C. 

Numerous,  complete,  perfect,  regular,  5-parted. 

Calyx,  F.Q. 

Tube  adherent  to  ovary,  green,  minute. 

Sepals,  L.N.P.F. 

Minute  teeth  5,  epigynous,  valvate  in  bud. 

Corolla,  F.Q. 

Rotate,  white. 

Petals,  L.N.P.F. 

5,  deciduous,  epigynous,  inflected  at  the  point. 

Stamens,  N.P.C. 

5,  epigynous,  diverging,  complete. 

Anther,  D.C.F. 

Opening  lengthwise,  introrse,  oval. 

Style,  N.C.F. 

2,  short,  distinct,  slender. 

Stigma,  N.F. 

2,  club-shaped. 

Ovary,  C.F.Pn. 

2-carpelled,  2-ovuled. 

Fruit,  N.D.K.F.Q. 

A  cremocarp,  oval  ;  carpels  with  5  ribs  and  U  mttce. 

Seed,  N.C.F.Q.A. 

1  in  each  carpel,  suspended,  albuminous. 

LOCALITY.  -Swamps,  Worcester,  Mass.    (Date),  July,  1870. 
CLASSIFICATION.-POLYPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
—  UMBELLIFER.E,  THE  UMBELWORTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Cicuta  maculata. 

—English,  Spotted  Water-hemlock. 

REMARKS.—  The  veinlets  terminate  in  the  notches  between  the  teeth.     The 
herbage  is  said  to  be  poisonous. 

294 


ANTENNA  RI  A. 


The  Record. — This  plant,  and  the  Order  which  it  repre- 
sents, offers  so  many  peculiarities  of  inflorescence  that  a  new 
tablet  becomes  necessary.  (See  Plant  Record,  Asterwort.) 


ORGAN. 

Life,  ZTabit,  JVumber,  Place,  TTind,  Construction,  Form, 
/Size,  Dualities  of  color,  etc.,  Appendages. 

Plant,  L.H.S.Q. 

y.  ,  herb,  in  dry  pastures,  5—9',  woolly  -canescent. 

Stem,  L.H.K.F. 

Herbaceous,  erect,  simple,  with  runners  at  base  ofcaulis. 

Leaves,  L.P.C.F.S.Q. 

Decid.,  alternate,  entire,  obovate,  oval-spatulate,  and  linear- 
oblong,  jrinni-veined,  petiolate,  exstijmlate. 

Petiole,  F.S.Q. 

Margined,  2'—l'—Of,  upper  leaves  sessile. 

Inflorescence,  P.K. 

Terminal,  in  heads  ;  heads  clustered. 

Head,  K.F.S. 

Dioecious,  discoid,  3"  diameter. 

Involucre,  K.F. 

Imbricated,  oval  or  hemispherical. 

Scales,  N.P.F.Q. 

oo  ,  appressed,  ovate,  scarious,  white,  $  obtuse,  9  acute. 

Receptacle,  F.Q. 

Flattish,  naked. 

Pales,  N.P.F.Q 

None. 

Ray  flowers,  N.K.F.Q. 

None. 

Disk  flowers,  N.K.F.Q 

/»/,  $  and  9  on  different  plants,  tubular,  5-tootJied,  white. 

Pappus,  L.N.C.F.Q. 

Persistent,  30,  simple,  capillary,  white. 

Stigmas,  N.P.C.F.Q. 

2,  exserted,  recurved,  $  united,  yellow. 

Achenium,  F.Q. 

Linear,  teretish,  brown. 

Embryo,  P.F. 

Axial,  straight. 

LOCALITY.—  Dayton,  0.    (Date),  April  12. 
CLASSIFICATION.-GAMOPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 
—  Order,  COMPOSITE,  or  THE  ASTERWORTS. 
NAME.—  Latin,  Antennaria  plantaginifolia. 

—English,  Mouse-ear  Everlasting. 
REMARKS.—?7^  pappus  of  the  sterile  florets  consists  of  club-shaped  knobby 
bristles  poorly  adapted  to  flying. 

MAPLE. 


FIG   LL-Flowers,  leaf,  and  double  samara  of  Acer  saccharinum  (Sugar  Maple) 
4,  leaf  and  samara  of  Acer  rubruin  (Ked  Maple).    See  p.  188. 


OAK    LEAVES. 


FIG.  LVL— Quercus  :  1,  leaf  of  Q,  virens,  Live  Oak  ;  2,  Q.  Phellos,  Willow  Oak ; 
3,  Q.  imbricaria,  Shingle  Oak  ;  4,  Q.  aquatica.  Water  Oak  ;  5,  Q.  nigra,  Black  Jack  ; 
6,  Q.  triloba,  Downy-Black  Jack ;  7,  Q.  ilicifplia,  Bear  Oak  ;  8,  Q.  rubra,  Red  Oak  ; 
9,  Q.  palustris,  Pin  Oak  ;  10,  Q.  coccinia,  Scarlet  Oak  ;  11,  Q.  falcata,  Spanish  Oak  ;  12, 
Q.  alba,  White  Oak  ;  13,  Q.  obtusiloba,  Iron  Oak  ;  14,  Q.  macrocarpa.  Mossy-cup  Oak  ; 
15,  Q.  bicolor,  Swamp-White  Oak  ;  16,  Q.  Prinos,  Swamp-Chestnut  Oak, 


QUESTIONS. 


I.  ADAPTED  TO  THE  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS. 

1.  Distinguish  two  regions. 

2.  What  parts  are  distinguishable  in  each  region  ? 

3.  What  is  the  form  of  the  Root  ? 

4.  What  purposes  does  it  serve  ? 

5.  In  which  region  is  the  Stem? 

6.  Describe  its  form,  attitude,  height  or  length. 

7.  Its  habit  as  to  branches.— Its  kind  as  to  scales  or  leaves. 

8.  Where  are  the  Leaves  placed  ?     How  arranged  ? 

9.  Shall  we  call  them  fronds  ?     Why,  or  why  not  ? 

10.  Are  they  simple,  or  compound  ? 

11.  What  are  their  members?     Have  they  veins? 

12.  Name  their  three  kinds  of  veins. 

13.  What  is  the  kind  and  mode  of  venation? 

14.  Define  carefully  the  form  of  outline. 

15.  What  is  their  quality  of  surface,  or  clothing? 

16.  What  do  you  call  their  stalks,  if  any? 

17.  Where  is  the  fruit  produced? 

18.  What  supports  it?     Describe  the  pedicel,  if  any. 

19.  Tell  how  the  capsules  open. 

20.  Point  out  the  operculum,  or  the  elastic  ring. 

21.  Describe  the  peristome,  if  any. 

22.  What  do  the  capsules  contain  ? 

23.  What  becomes  of  the  spores?     What  is  their  use? 

24.  What  if  no  more  spores  were  produced  ? 

25.  Do  you  find  any  flowers?     Of  what  size  antl  appearance? 

26.  In  what  subkingdom  is  this  plant  classed  ? 


298  APPENDIX. 

27.  In  what  sense  is  this  a  "  Flowerless  Plant  "  ? 

28.  What  is  its  order? — genus? — species?* 

29.  What  is  its  popular  name  ? 

II.  ON  THE  LEAF  REGION  OF  A  FLOWERING  PLANT. 

§  1.    The  Plant. 

Life.     Is  it  an  annual,  a  biennial,  or  a  perennial  ? 
Habit.     Is  it  an  herb,  a  shrub,  vine,  or  tree  ? 

Describe  its  locality. 

Size.     What  are  its  height,  or  length,  and  other  dimensions?  . 
Qualities.     In  surface,  is  it  smooth,  or  rough,  or  hairy? 

What  term  defines  its  color  or  special  hue  ? 

§  2.    The  Boot. 

Life      State  its  term  of  duration. 

Form.     Is  it  axial,  or  inaxial  ?    Of  what  special  form? 

§  3.    The  Stem. 

Life.     What  is  its  duration  and  substance  ? 

Habit.     In  growth,  is  it  exogenous,  or  endogenous? 

What  is  its  direction  or  posture? 

What  is  its  habit  of  branching  ? 
Kind.     Is  it  scaly  or  leafy  ? — under  or  above  ground  ? 

Is  it  a  caulis,  trunk,  bulb,  or  rhizome,  etc.  ? 
Form.     Is  it  solid,  or  tubular,  angular,  or  terete,  etc.  ? 

§  4.    The  Leaves. 

Life.    Are  the  leaves  deciduous,  or  evergreen  ? 
Place.     How  are  they  folded  in  vernation? 

What  is  their  position  on  the  plant? 

How  are  they  arranged  among  themselves? 
Construction.     Describe  their  veins  and  venation. 

Of  what  numbers  are  they  constituted  ? 

Are  they  simple,  or  compound  ? 

Describe  the  mode  of  composition. 
Form  of  blade.     What  term  or  terms  define  their  outline? 


*  The  scientific  name  of  a  plant,  or  its  genus  and  species,  if  not  communicated,  may 
be  determined,  after  analysis,  by  the  aid  of  a  Descriptive  Flora  with  analytical  tables. 


QUESTIONS.  299 

What  term  defines  the  apex  ? — or  base  ? 

The  margin — is  it  dentate  ? — serrate  ? — entire  ? — etc. 
Size.     State  their  measurements. 
Quality.     Describe  their  surface-quality,  or  clothing. 

§  5.    The  Petiole. 
Form,  etc.    State  the  form,  size,  and  quality  of  the  petiole. 

.     §  6.    The  Stipules. 

Life,  etc.     State  their  duration,  kind,  and  form. 

III.  ON  THE  FLOWER  REGION  OF  ANY  FLOWERING  PLANT 

(EXCEPT  THE  COMPOSITES,  SEDGES  AND  GRASSES). 

§  1.    Inflorescence. 

Place.     Define  the  position  and  posture  of  the  flowers. 

Kind.     In  general,  is  the  inflorescence  solitary,  or  centripetal  ?  etc. 

In  particular,  is  it  a  raceme  ? — spike  ? — spadix  ? 
Appendages.     Name  the  flower-stalks,  if  any. 

Describe  the  bracts,  if  any. 

The  involucre — the  involucels. 

Point  out  the  scales — the  pales. 

Point  out  the  rachis — the  torus. 

§  2.    The  Flower. 

Number.    What  is  the  radical  number  of  the  flower? 

Construction.     Name  all  its  organs.     How  many  are  there  of  each  ? 

Is  it  complete?    What  is  lacking? 

Is  it  regular?     How  irregular? 

Is  it  symmetrical  ?     How  unsymmetrical  ? 

Why  polypetalous,  or  gamopetalous  ? 

Distinguish  the  torus— the  disk. 

§  3.    The  Calyx  and  Corolla,  or  Perianth. 

Form.     Is  it  polyphyllous ?     Are  its  leaves  united? 

What  term  defines  the  special  form  ? 
Quality.     In  surface,  is  it  smooth?— hairy? — granular? 

What  term  or  terms  define  the  color? 


300  APPENDIX. 

§  4.    Sepals  and  Petals. 

Life.     How  long  is  their  duration?     What  term  defines  it? 
Number.     How  many  are  there  ? 
Place.     Define  carefully  their  aestivation. 
Form.     Describe  the  pattern  of  their  outline. 
Nectary.     Describe  it,  if  conspicuous. 
Lip.    What  is  the  special  form  of  the  lip,  if  any? 
Corona.     Describe  its  situation,  parts,  and  form. 

§  5.    The  Stamens. 

Number.     How  many? — definite,  or  indefinite? 

Pface,  as  to  the  adjacent  organs — are  they  opposing  ?  alternating  ?  etc. 

Are  they  exserted  ? — included  ? — connivent  ? 

Are  they  ascending  ? — declining  ? 

Why  are  they  hypogynous  ?     Why  epipetalous  ?  etc. 

How  connected — Gynandrous?  Syngenecious  ? 

Diadelphous  ? — Monadelphous  ?  etc. 
Construction.     Of  what  members  are  they  composed? 

What  member  is  lacking  when  sessile  ?— sterile  ? 

Are  they  didynamous? — tetradynamous? 

§  6.    Anther. 

Place.     How  is  it  attached  to  the  filament?   Which  way  does  it  face? 
Dehiscence.     How  does  it  open  ?     In  what  direction? 
Construction.     In  how  many  cells  is  it  divided  ?    What  appendages 
are  there  ? 

Form.     What  term  defines  their  shape? 

§  7.    Pollen,  Pollinia. 
Form.     Describe  the  pollen,  or  pollinia,  as  to  form  and  quality. 

§  8.   The  Style. 

Number,     How  many  styles?     Are  they  united  or  separate? 
Place.     How  situated  on  the  ovary  ?     In  what  posture? 
Form.     What  term  describes  their  form  ? 

§  9.    The  Stigma. 

Number.     How  many  stigmas? 

Place.     How  attached  to  the  style  ?     When  is  the  stigma  sessile? 

Form.     Of  its  many  shapes,  which  is  this? 


QUESTIONS.  301 

§  1O.    Ovary. 

Construction.     Is  it  simple?     How  compounded? 

How  many  cells  ?  Is  it  free  or  adherent  ? 
Form.  What  term  or  terms  define  its  shape  ? 
Placentation.  Is  the  placenta  central,  free-central,  or  parietal? 

§  11.    Ovules. 

Place.     What  is  their  position  in  the  cell  ? 
Construction.     Are  they  anatropous  ? — orthotropous  ? 

§  12.    Fruit. 

Number.     How  many  carpels,  whether  distinct  or  united? 

How  many  cells  has  the  fruit ?     Same  as  the  ovary? 
Dehiscence.     Is  this  a  dehiscent,  or  indehiscent  fruit? 

What  term  describes  its  mode  of  dehiscence? 
Kinds.     Of  the  twenty-seven  special  kinds,  which  is  this  ? 

Analyze  its  coverings,  substance,  cells,  valves,  carpophore,  etc. 
Form.     What  term  or  terms  indicates  its  shape  ? 
Quality.     Describe  its  color,  texture,  and  clothing. 

§  13.   Seed. 

Number.     Are  there  few,  or  indefinite,  or  how  many? 

Construction,  in  regard  to  albumen,  and  cotyledons? 

Form.     What  term  defines  their  shape  ? 

Quality,  as  to  color,  surface,  or  clothing. 

Appendages.     Have  they  wings  ? — or  a  coma? — or  an  aril  ?  j2tc. 

IV.  ON  THE  FLOWER  REGION   OF  THE  COMPOSITES. 
§  1.    Head. 

Kind.     Are  the  heads  dioecious  ? — or  monoecious  ?  etc. 
Form.     Are  they  discoid  ? — radiate  ? — radiant  ? 

§  2.   Involucre. 

Kind.     Is  the  involucre  simple  ? — imbricated  ? — calyculate  ? 
Form.     What  term  defines  the  shape? 

§  3.  Scales  and  Pales. 

Number.     Few  ? — definite  ? — or  indefinite  ? 


302  APPENDIX. 

Place.     Are  they  erect  ? — appressed  ? — loose  ?  etc. 
Form.     Define  their  outline,  margin,  apex. 
Qualities.     What  texture  ? — surface  ? — color  ? 

§  4.    Receptacle. 

Form.     Is  the  receptacle  flat  ? — convex  ? — conical  ? 
Quality.     Is  it  naked  ? — chaffy  ? — bristly  ?— alveolate  ? 

§  5.    Rays,  or  Ray  Flowers. 

Number.     How  many  ? — in  how  many  rows  ? 
Kind.    Are  they  perfect  ? —  $  ? —  $  ? — sterile  ? — fertile  ? 
Form.     Are  they  ligulate  ?— tubular  ? — linear  ? — oblong?  etc. 
Quality.     What  is  their  color  ? 

§  6.    Disk  Flowers. 
Number.     Can  they  be  easily  counted  ? 
Kind.     Are  they  perfect  ? —  $  ?—  $  ? — fertile  or  sterile  ? 
/WTTC.     Are  they  tubular  ? — 4-toothed  ? — 5-toothed  ? 
Quality.     Of  what  color  ? 

§  7.    Stigmas. 

Place.     Are  they  straight  ? — incurved  ? — recurved  ? 
Form.     Are  they  flat  ? — terete  ? — pointed  ? — truncate  ? 
Quality.     How  is  their  surface  clothed  ? 

§  8.    Fruit  (— achenia  or  cypsela). 

Form.     Describe  its  shape,  whether  linear,  terete,  compressed,  etc. 
Quality?    What  of  its  surface,  and  color  ? 

§  9.    Pappus. 

Life.     Is  the  pappus  deciduous  or  persistent  on  the  fruit  ? 
Number.     Of  how  many  bristles  or  scales. 
Construction.     Is  it  stiped  ?  or  simple  ?  or  double? 
Form.     Is  it  capillary  ?  scaly  ?  plumous  ?  barbed  ? 
Quality.     What  is  the  color  ? 

V.  ON  THE  FLOWER  REGION  OF  THE  SEDGES  AND 
GRASSES. 

§  1.    Inflorescence  (general). 

Place.     Are  the  flowers  axillary,  or  terminal,  or  both  ? 


QUESTIONS.  m  303 

Kind.     Are  they  in  panicles,  or  spikes  ? — compact  or  loose  ? 
Appendages.     How  are  the  branches  of  the  panicle  arranged  ? 

j  Spikes  (of  the  Sedges)  or 
§      |  Spikelets  (of  the  Grasses). 

Number.     Are  there  few,  or  many  ?     How  many  ? 
Kind.    Are  their  flowers  $  ,  or  $  ,  or  perfect  ( $ )  ? 

Are  they  monoecious,  or  dioecious  ? 

Form.     Describe  their  particular  shape,  as  terete,  ovoid,  etc. 
Size.     How  long,  and  large  are  they  ? 
Quality.     Describe  their  color  or  surface  character. 

§  3.    Flowers. 

Number  in  the  spike  or  spikelet — how  many? 
Kind.     Are  they  fertile  ?  or  sterile  ?  or  both  ? 

How  many  stamens  have  they — i,  2,  3,  or  more? 

How  many  stigmas — i,  or  2  ? 

§  4.    Glumes. 

Number.     Are  there  i,  or  2,  glumes,  or  none  ? 

Place.    Are  they  arranged  in  2  rows  ?  or  3  ?  or  imbricated  all  around  ? 
Form.     What  is  their  shape — as  lanceolate,  carinate,  bifid  ? 
Size.     How  long  are  they  relatively  ? — intrinsically  ? 
Qualities.     In  texture,  herbaceous  ?  scarious  ?     What  in  color  ? 

§  5.    Pales,  or  Perianth. 

Kinds.     Are  there  setae?  or  petals?  or  pales?  or  a  perigynium  ? 

Number.     How  many  pieces  in  each  flower  ? 

Place.     What  is  their  posture — erect?  recurved?  free? 

Form.     What  the  special  form  of  the  perigynium  ? 

Size.     What  is  its  relative  length  ? 

Quality.    What  of  its  surface  ? — its  color? 

§  6.    Awns. 
Place.     Are  they  on  the  back  or  the  tip  of  the  glume  or  pale  or 

rudiment? 

Form.     Are  they  straight,  or  bent  ? — bristle-form,  or  gossamer  ? 
Size.     What  is  its  relative  length  ? 
Quality.     Are  they  scabrous,  or  smooth,  or  feathery? 


304 


APPENDIX. 


§  8.    Rudiments  (abortive  flowers). 

Number.     Are  there  i,  or  2,  or  several  ? 

Kind.     Are  they  staminate,  or  neutral  ? 

Form.     Are  they  a  pale  ? — a  pedicel  ?  or  an  awn? 

Quality,     Are  they  ciliate  ?  scabrous  ?  hairy? 

§  9.    Anthers. 

Place.     How  are  they  attached  to  the  filament  ? 

§  10.    Stigmas. 

Form,  etc.     Are  they  plumous  ?— curved  ? — erect  ? 

§  11.    Grain. 

Kind.     Is  it  an  achenium,  a  cariopsis,  or  a  utricle  ? 
Form.     Is  it  triquitrous?  lens-shaped?  oblong?  etc. 
Appendages.     Is  it  tipped'  with  a  tubercle  ? 

.  VI.     ON  THE  ACTION,  ETC.,  OF  PLANTS, 

§  1.    Fertilization. 

1.  Does  this  plant  produce  any  nectar? 

2.  Describe  the  place  and  form  of  the  nectaries. 

3.  What  seems  to  be  the  primary  use  of  them  ? 

4.  Is  the  plant  wind-fertilized,  or  insect  fertilized? 

5.  What  arrangement,  if  any,  prevents  self  fertilization? 

6.  Is  the  flower  proterandrous  ?     Is  it  protogynous? 

7.  Is  it  dimorphous?     How  does  this  appear? 

8.  How  does  this  favor  crossing? 

9.  Do  the  stamens  show  irritability?     How  do  they  act  ? 

10.  Is  the  pollen  in  grains,  or  in  pollinia? 

11.  Describe  the  pollinia.     How  and  by  what  extracted? 

12.  How  are  they  brought  to  bear  on  the  stigma? 

13.  WThat  arrangement  to  save  the  honey  from  the  ants? 

14.  How  is  it  secured  against  rain  and  dew  ? 

15.  Are  the  flowers,  any  or  all,  cleistogene?     Describe  such. 

16.  How  is  the  pollen  thus  economized  ? 

§  2.    Sleep. 

1.  Is  this  plant  sensitive  to  night  and  day?— light  and  shade? 

2.  What  are  the  indications  of  it? 


QUESTIONS.  305 

3.  At  what  hour  does  it  open  its  flowers? 

4.  How  long  do  they  remain  open?     When  do  they  close? 

5.  Do  they  open  and  close  more  than  once? 

6.  Do  the  leaves  change  position  at  night,  or  in  shade  ? 

7.  Describe  the  change. 

8.  How  is  the  nectar  affected  by  the  flowers'  closing? 

§  3.    Irritability. 

1.  Is  this  plant  sensitive  to  touch?     In  which  organ? 

2.  How  is  this  indicated  ? 

§  4.    Movements. 

1.  How  is  this  vine  furnished  for  climbing? 

2.  Has  it  any  special  organs  ?     What  are  they  ? 

3.  Have  you  observed  their  movements  ?     Describe  them. 

4.  What  seems  to  be  the  purpose  of  this  motion  ? 

5.  After  it  has  reached  an  object,  how  does  the  tendril  act? 

6.  How  does  a  vine  without  tendrils  climb  ? 

7.  Is  it  aided  by  its  petioles  ?     Explain. 

8.  If  it  be  a  twining  vine,  which  way  does  it  turn  ? 

9.  To  find  a  support,  what  movement  have  you  observed? 
10.  Is  it  aided  by  hairs,  or  prickles  ? — by  rootlets  ? 

§  5.    Classification. 

1.  Is  this  plant  an  Exogen,  or  an  Endogen? 

2.  By  what  marks  do  you  determine  this? 

3.  Has  it  a  stigma,  and  an  end  vessel  ?     Is  it  then  a  Gymnosperm  ? 

4.  Have  you  determined  its  Order  ? — its  Genus  ? — its  Species  ? 


INDEX. 


PRONOUNCING,  GLOSSARIAL  AND  REFERENTIAL. 


A. 

A  (in  composition)  prefixed  to  a  Greek 
word,  signifies  without;  as  apetalcrus, 
without  petals. 

Abies,  218. 

Ab6rtive,  not  developed,  imperfect. 

Abortion,  non-development  of  a  part. 

Abrupt  at  base,  truncate. 

Absinthe,  147. 

Acacia,  a-ka-shi-a,  124. 

Acaulescent,  apparently  stemless,  54,  66, 

Accessory,  something  superadded. 
Accrescent,  growing  after  flowering  ;  sc. 

Accumbent,  lying  against  the  edge,  103. 

See  Cotyledons. 
Acer,  192. 

Acerous,  needle-shaped,  214. 
Achenium  (a-ken-i-um),  plu 

achenia,  48, 147,  178. 
Aconite,  64. 
Acorns,  209,  210. 
Aculeate,  armed  with  prickles. 
Acuminate,  extended  into  a  point 
Acute,  ending  in  a  sharp  angle. 
Adam-and-Eve  (Aplectrum),  236. 
Adherent,  growing  to,  87.         -A/W 
Adherent  Ovary.     Current.     Stffift 

110,  233.  \\m 

Adiantum,  27.  W 

Adnate,  growing  fast         -_      v 

to,  74,  184.  A^fc 

Adnate    stipules,         /// 

Rose.  /// 

Addnis,  64.  & 

Adventitious,  out  of  the  normal  position, 

129. 

Aerial  region,  20. 
^Esculus,  194. 
^Estivation,  42. 

Affinity,  resemblance  in  essential  organs 
African  Hemp,  258. 
Agapanthus,  258. 
Agave,  a-ga-ve,  263. 
Aggregate,  assembled  close  together. 
AglumaceouR,  without  glumes. 
Air  plants,  239. 
Ala,  pi.  Alae,  wings,  118. 


Albumen,  33, 42,  111. 

Albuminous.  186. 

Alburnum,  the  sap-wood  (p.  107). 

Alnllirea  or  Alfilaria,  the  "  Pin  Grass"  of 

the  Pacific  Coast  (Erodiuni  cicutarium), 

87. 

Algae,  seaweeds,  27. 
AlPium,  258. 
Aloe,  American,  263. 
Aloes,  258. 

Alpine  Primrose,  168. 
Alternate  generation,  22. 
Alternate  leaves,  193. 
Alternating  stamens,  33. 
Alveolate,  with  pits,  as  a  honeycomb. 
Alyssum,  103. 
Amaryllis.  263. 
Amaryllidaceae,  262. 
Ament,  a  deciduous  spike,  208.  i 

Am6rphous,  without  definite  fo  m. 
Amplexicaul,  stem-clasping, 

98,251. 

Amygdalus,  116. 
Anagallis,  168.  -sr\ 

Analysis,  13.  Y/f    ) 

Anatropous  ovule,  56.    vl   I 
Ancipital,  two-edged,    . \\y, 

244  "^     • 

Androgynous,   staminate  and    pistillate 

flowers  together  in  a  cluster,  266. 
Anemdne,  61. 
Angiosperms,  220. 
Anise,  136. 

Annual,  living  one  year  ;  yearly,  68. 
Annular  cells,  cells  distended  with  rings, 

225. 

Antennaria,  139. 
Anterior,  facing  outward. 
Anthe"mis,  147. 
Anthelmintic,  expelling  or  killing 

worms. 

Anther,  innate,  attached  by  base. 
Anther,  adnato.  attached  by  back. 
Anther,  versatile,  attached  ^ 

by  middle.  \\ 

Anther,  valvate,  dehiscing     ff% 

by  valves.  (|  D 

Anthdsis,  the  act  of  flowering. 
Anthericlia,    staminate   organs   of 

Mosses,  etc.,  14. 


INDEX. 


307 


Antirrhinum,  176. 

Apetalous,  without  petals,  56. 

Aphyllous,  without  leaves. 

Apopysis,  a  swelling.    See  Fig.  I,  7,  a. 

Apex,  the  summit  or  tip,  21. 

Apple  Tree,  107,  111. 

Apple  Moss,  17. 

Appressed,  closely  applied,  but  not  ad- 
hering to  ;  the  same  as  adpressed. 

Apterous,  without  wings. 

Aquatic,  living  in  the  water. 

Araceae,  232. 

Arb6reus,  arborescent,  tree-like. 

Arbutus,  trailing,  158. 

Arcuate,  arched  or  curved  like  a  bow. 

Arcto.xtaphylus,  158. 

Aril,  an  extra  seed-envelope,  as 
in  Enonymus. 

Arissema,  231. 

Aristate,  awned;  bearing  an  awn. 

Armed,  bearing  prickles,  spines, 
''etc.4 

Arnica,  147. 

Aroids,  232. 

Articulated,  jointed. 

Artemisia,  147. 

Arum,  232. 

Ascending,  arising  obliquely  ;  assurgent. 

Ascidia,  leaves  holding  water,  161. 

Asclepiadaceae,  197. 

Asclepias,  197, 199. 

Ash  93. 

Aspidium,  27. 

Assafoetida,  137. 

Assimilate,  to  digest  as  food. 

Aster,  China,  147. 

Asterworts.  146. 

Attar  of  Roses,  116. 

ArctostaphyluH,  158. 

Auricula,  168. 

Auriculate,  with  ear-shaped  lobes,  74. 

Awn,  the  beard  of  Barley,  and  the 
like,  276. 

Axial  root,  50. 

Axil,  the  angle  between  the  petiole  and 
branch,  on  the  upper  side,  90. 

Axillary,  growing  out  of  the  axils,  90. 

Axis,  the  central  body  or  column,  13. 

B. 

Baccate,  berry-like. 

Balm. 

Balsamine,  95. 

Bamboo,  225,  280. 

Banner  same  as  vexillum,  118. 

Bark,  the  outer  layers  of  Ex- 
ogenous stems,  107. 

Barley,  279. 

Bartramia,  18. 

Bartram,  John,  18. 

Basilar  style,  attached  to  the  base  of 
the  ovary.    Brunella,  180. 

Bath  Flower,  249. 

Bdellium,  137. 

Beaked,  ending  in  an  extended  tip,  267 

Bean,  125. 

Bearberry.    See  Arctostaphylns. 

Bearded,  with  awns,  or  tufted  hairs. 


Beech,  111.    Beech  Tree,  213. 

Begonia,  120. 

Bellworts,  251.  [pulp. 

Berry,  a  fruit  with  its  seeds  immersed  m 

Bi,  Bis  (in  compound  words),  twice. 

Biennial,  of  2  years,  125. 

Biennial-fruit,  210. 

Bifid,  cleft  into  2  parts,  79. 

Bifoliate,  with  two  leaflets. 

Big  Trees  of  Calaveras,  221. 

Bilabiate,  two-lipped,  173. 

Binate,  two  growing  to- 
gether.   See  Bifoliate. 

Bindweeds,  187. 

Blpinnate,  twice  pinnated. 

Bipinnatifid,    twice    pin- 
natifid,  24. 

Bird  Knotweed,  201. 

Biternate,  twice  ternate,  58. 

Bivalved,  two-valved. 

Blackberry,  116. 

Blade,  the  main  part  of  a  leaf. 

Blinding  Tree,  207. 

Blanched,  whitened  for  want  of  light ;  the 
same  as  etiolated. 

Bloodroot,  64. 

Bloom,  a  fine  white  powder  on  some 
plants. 

Blueberry,  158. 

Blue  Curls,  179.— Flag,  241.— Grass,  274.— 
Violet,  77. 

Blue-eyed  Grass,  244. 

Bouncing  Bet,  83. 

Boxberry,  147. 

Boxwood,  207. 

Brachiate,  with  opposite  branches. 

Bract,  a  reduced  leaf  near  the  flowers,  56. 

Bracteoles,  Bractlets,  reduced  bracts. 

Brake,  Common,  27. 

Branches,  the  divisions  of  a  stem. 

Brassica.  103. 

Brazil  Wood,  125. 

Bristles,  stiff,  sharp  hairs. 

Brunella,  180. 

Bry61ogy,  the  science  of  Mosses. 

Bud,  The,  a  rudiment,  186. 

Bud-scales,  reduced  leaves  covering  the 
bud. 

Bulb,  an  underground  bud,  29,  35. 

Bulblets,  little  Tbulbs  formed  in  the  leaf- 
axils  and  falling  off. 

Bulbous  Crowfoot,  50.  ^f> 

Bulb,  a  scaly,  35.  W 

Bulb,  a  coated,  or  truncated,  35.  ~fK~ 

Bulrushes,  270  W 

Burgundy  Pitch,  223.  "*w- 

Butter-and-Eggs,  173. 

Buttercup,  48. 

Butterfly  Weed,  199. 

Bnxus,  207. 

C. 

Cabbage,  103. 

Cabbage  Palmetto,  224. 

Caducous,  dropping  off  early,  66. 

Caespitous,  forming  tufts,  or  a  turf. 

Caladium,  233. 

Calamus  Rudentum,  227. 

Calceolaria,  176. 

Calico  Bush,  155. 


308 


INDEX. 


California  Poppy,  71. 

Calla,  232. 

Calop6gon,  235. 

Calyculate,   having  an   outer  calyx,  or 

calyx-like  involucre. 
Calyptra,  the  cap  of  a  Moss-capsule,  14. 
Calyx,  the  outer  floral  envelope,  31. 
Calyx  free,  not  joined  to  other  organs, 

110. 

Calyx  inferior,  the  same  as  calyx  free,  108. 
Cambium,  the  new  layer  of  wood,  next 

under  the  bark. 
Ca-meT-li-a,  115. 
Camomile,  147. 

Campanulate,  bell-shaped,  181. 
Camwood,  125. 
Canada  Balaam,  223. 
Candy  Tuft,  103. 

Canescent,  whitish  with  minute  hairs. 
Capers,  97,  207. 

Capillary,  very  fine,  hair-like,  167. 
Capitate,  inflorescence  head-shaped. 
Capsella,  100. 
Capsule,  a  dry,  dehiscent  fruit, 

14,  as. 

Capsular,  of  or  like  a  capsule. 

Caraway,  136. 

Cardamme  (car-da-mi-ne),  102. 

Carex,  265. 

Carinate,  boat-shaped,  kseled,  118. 

CariniE,  the  2  lower  petals  of  a  papilliona- 
ceous  flower,  118. 

Carnivorous  Plants,  161. 

Carob,  125. 

Carpels,  the  divisions  of  a 
fruit,  48,  220. 

Carpels  distinct.  Thalictrum. 

Carpinus,  214. 

Carpophore,  the  fruit-bearer,  85, 133. 

Carrion  Flower,  199. 

Carrot,  136. 

Carthamus,  147,  246. 

Carum,  134. 

Caruncle,  an  appendage  of  a  seed,  205. 

Caryophyllacese,  82. 

Caryophyllaceous  flower,  i.  e., 
5  petals  in  a  tubular  calyx. 

Cary6psis,  a  fruit  like  a  Wheat- 
kernel,  with  the  seed  insepa- 
rable from  its  coat,  274. 

Cascarilla,  207. 

Cassava,  207. 

Cassias,  123. 

Castor  oil,  206. 

Catch  Fly,  83. 

Catechu,  125. 

Catkin,  the  same  as  ament,  208. 

Catmint,  178. 

Caudex,  the  stem  of  a  Palm,  etc.,  80,  224. 

Caulescent,  having  a  stem  above-ground, 

Cauline,  of  the  stem. 

Caulis,  an  herbaceous  stem,  29. 

Cedars,  Giant,  221. 

Cedars,  Red,  223. 

Celery,  136. 

Cellular  tissue,  17,  225. 

Centrifugal  inflorescence,  104,  140. 

Centripetal  inflorescence,  41,  126. 


Century  Plant,  263- 

Cereal,  relating  to  grains,  corn,  etc. 

Cernuous,  nodding  (less  than  pendulous). 

Chaff,  the  same  as  pales,  139,  273. 

Chalaza,  the  place  where  the  ovule  joins 
its  stalk. 

Chamaerops,  226. 

Chartaceous,  with  texture  like  paper. 

Checkerberry,  147. 

Cheiranthus,  103. 

Cheliddnium,  71. 

Cherry,  116. 

Cherry  Laurel,  116. 

Chervil,  136. 

Chestnut,  210,  213,214. 

Chickweed,  78. 

Chick  Wintergreen,  164. 

Chickory,  147. 

Chimaphila,  153, 154. 

j  China  Aster,  147.  [136. 

I  Chlorophyl,  the  green  grains  in  leaf-cells, 
'•  Chrysanthemum,  147. 
!  Cicely,  131. 

Cichorium,  147. 

Cicuta,  137 

Cilia,  plu.  cilia?,  hairs  like  the  eyelash, 
14,  18. 

Ciliate,  fringed  with  hairs,  132. 

Cinereous,  ash-colored,  ash-gray. 

Cinnamon  Fern,  26. 

CinquefoiL  112.  -^ 

Circmate,  rolled  inward  from  the  top,  ofa 
26.  f 

Circulation  of  the  sap,  110.  «/ 

Cirrhous,  furnished  with  a  tendril,  117.  * 

Circumscissile,    opening    by    a    lid,    all 
around,  43  ;  Fig.  XLIII,  5. 

Clarkia,  131. 

Clavate,  club-shaped. 

Claw.    Sec  Unguiculate,  85,  110. 

Claytonia,  43. 

Clayton's  Omunda,  24. 

Cleistogene  flowers,  never  opening,  74. 

Clematis,  64. 

Clianthus,  125. 

Climbing  Plants,  186. 
j  Climbing  Fern.  27. 

Clintonia,  256. 

Clove  Pink,  80. 

Clover,  125. 

Club  Mosses,  27.  ^ 

Cochleate,  spiral  like  the   snail-    |Sa 
shell.  f&j* 

Cdcoanut,  226.  ^gjf 

Cdcoanut  Palm,  228. 

Coherent,  united  as  to  similar  parts. 

Cohesion,  union  of  similar  parts. 

Colocasia,  233. 

Collateral,  placed  side  by  side. 

C61umbine.  64. 

Colored,  of  any  color  except  green. 

Column,  combined  stamens  and 
styles,  Cypripedium.  235. 

Coma,  the  long  hairs  of  a  seed, 
as  cotton,  etc.,  197. 

Commissure,  the  joined  faces 
of  the  carpels  of  a  cremocarp,  135. 

Complete  Flower,  having  the  4  kinds  of 
organs,  47, 


INDEX. 


309 


Compound  leaf,  having  several  leaflets,  58. 

Composite,  146. 

Conduplicate,  leaf  folded,  the  two 

halves  face  to  face. 
Cone,  the  scaly  fruit  of  the  Pines, 

etc.,  215.  [ent. 

Confluent,  uniting  ;  same  as  coher- 
Coniferse,  220. 
Conium,  137. 

C6n  jugate,  united  by  pairs. 
Connate,  growing  together, 

as  leaves,  etc. 
Contorted,    twisted ;     petals 

over-lapping  all  one  way,  183. 
Connectile,  that  part  of  the 

filament  which  connects  the 

two  anther  cells,  180. 
Connivent,  converging  toward 

each  other. 
Convallaria,  256. 

Converging  petals,  see  Connivent,  151. 
Convolute,  see  Contort- 
ed.     Also  when    the 

leaves    or    petals    are 

rolled  one  within  an- 
other. 

Convolvulacese,  Convolvulus,  187. 
Copaiva  balsam,  123. 
Cordate  (leaf),  heart-shaped,  66,  73. 
Coreopsis,  147. 
Coriaceous,  leather-like,  54. 
Coriander,  136.  [258. 

Corm,  a  solid  bulb-like  stem,  50.  2:31, 
Corn  Cockle,  83,— Speedwell,  170. 
Corolla,  the  inner  floral  envelope, 

32. 
Corona,  a  crown  in  the  midst  of 

the  flower,  198,  262. 
Corymb,  a  level-topped  cluster, 

centripetal,  114,  155. 
Corymbous,  of  or  like  a  corymb. 
Costate,  with  rib-like  ridges, 
Cotton,  104. 
Cotton  Grass,  270, 
Cotyledon  (seed-lobe), 

42,  86,  110,  186. 
Cotyledon  accumbent, 

102.  [104. 

Cotyledon  incumbent, 
Cotyledon  conduplicate,  Mustard. 
Cowslip,  161, 168. 
Cow  Tree,  199. 
Crab  Tree,  117.  . 

Cranberry.  158. 
Cranesbill,  83. 
Creeper,  a  prostrate  stem  under  or  above 

ground,  [102. 

Cremocarp,  the  fruit  of  the  Umbelworts, 
Crenate,  with  rounded  teeth,  11,  177. 
Crenulate,  the  rounded  teeth  small. 
Cress,  Toothroot,  101. 
Crest,  an  elevated  ridge. 
Crinum,  263. 

Cristate,  having  an  elevated  ridge. 
Crocus,  246. 
Croton  Oil,  206. 
Crowfoot,  46,  62. 
Crown  of  the  root,  54. 
Crown  Imperial,  238. 


Cruciferse,  103.  [100. 

Cruciform  corolla,  cross-shaped. 

Cryptogamia,  16. 

Cryptogams,  27. 

Cryp-tog-a-mous,  16,  27. 
i  Cucullate,  hood-shaped,  73. 

Cucumber,  Indian,  249. 

Cucumber,  Squirting,  95. 

Culm,  the  straw  of  the  grasses,  264. 

Cummin,  136. 

Cuneate  (leaf),  cuneiform,  wedge- 
shaped. 

Cupulifereae,  213. 

Cuspidate,  with  a  sharp,  slender 
point,  [ing.    / 

Cuticle,  the  outer  skin  or  cover-    ' 

Cyclamen,  168. 

Cydonia,  117.  [104. 

Cyme,  a  centrifugal  cluster, 

Cyperacese,  268. 

Cyperus.  264,  268. 

Cypripedium,  238. 

Cypsela,  the  fruit  of  the 
Composite,  142. 


Daffodil,  251,  263. 


D. 


Dahlia,  147. 

Dalbergia,  125. 

Damask  Rose,  115. 

Dandelion,  95,  143,  177. 

Darlingtonia,  160. 

Date  Palm,  225,  228.  [son,  33. 

Deciduous,  falling  at  the  end  of  the  sea- 

Dehiscence,  act  or  manner  of  opening. 

Decompound,  much  compounded,  129. 

Decurrent  leaves,  running  down 

the  stem. 
Decumbent,   first    erect,   the 

prostrate. 

Definite,  of  a  special  number. 
Defoliation,  casting  off 

of  leaves. 
Deltoid,  form  of  the  Gr. 

letter  A.  [form. 

Dendroid,    tree-like    in 
Dentaria,  102. 

Dentate,  with  teeth  turned  outward. 
Depauperate,  less  developed  than  usual. 
Depressed,  flattened  from  above. 
Desmodium  gyrans,  124. 
Di  (in  Gr.  compounds),  two. 
Diadelphous,  stamens  in  two  sets,  118. 
Dwgnoscis,  the  distinctive  character. 
Diandrous,  having  two  stamens. 
Dianthus,  82,  83. 

Dich&tomous,  forked  or  2-cleft,  17,  78. 
Di-cot-y-led-o-nous,  embryo  2-lobed,  66. 
Didynamous,  with  2  long  and  2  short 

stamens,  174. 

Diffenbachia.  233.  [ing. 

Diffuse,  much  branched  and  spread- 
Digitate.  leaflets  distinct, 

palmately  arranged,  194. 
Digitalis,  176. 


Digitalis, 
Dill,  136. 


Dimerous,   flowers    two- 
parted.    Circnea,  131. 
Dimorphism,  162,  203. 


310 


INDEX. 


Dioecious,  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers 
on  different  plants,  137. 

Dionaea,  160. 

Dipterix,  125. 

Dipterous,  with  two  wings. 

Dischidia,  199. 

Discoid  Head,  145. 

Disk,  a  layer  between  the  sta- 
mens and  ovary,  AJchemilla. 
184. 

Dissected,  cut  into  deep  lobes,  incised,   m 

Dis-ti-chous,  arranged  in  two  rows.  W 

Divaricate,wide-spread,  straggling,  24.  n 

Divergent,  spread  g  apart,  more  or  less,  y 

Dock,  50,  203. 

Do-de-cath-e-on,  162,  168,  177. 

Dogtooth  Violet,  29. 

Dorsal,  on  the  back. 

Double  Rose,  114. 

Double  Pink,  82. 

Douglas  Fir  221. 

Downy,  clothed  with  short,  weak  hairs. 

Dracdna.  258. 

Dragon's  Blood,  258. 

Dragon's  Root,  231. 

Drosera,  161. 

Drupe,  a  stone-fruit,  as  Cherry,  Hickory. 

Dumb  Cane,  233. 

Duramen,  heartwood,  107. 

E. 

E,  or  Ex  (in  composition),  without ;  as 

Ebracteate,  without  bracts. 

Elecampane,  147. 

Elliptical,  form  of  an  ellipse. 

Elm,  36,  176. 

E16ngated,  lengthened,  extended,  /y» 

Emarginate,  notched  at  the  end,  /J, 1 

Embryo,  straight ;  convolute,  32, 

Embryo  coiled  around  \ 
albumen. 

Enchanter's     Night- 
shade, 131. 

Endogens,  33,  229. 

Endogenous  structure,  225. 

Ensiform,  sword-shaped,  241. 

Entire  Margin,  even-edged,  31. 

Ephemeral,  enduring  for  one  day. 

Epi  (in  composition),  upon,  as 

Epidermis,  same  as  cuticle. 

Epigea  158. 

Epi^ynous,  upon  the  ovary,  184. 

Epilobium,  131. 

Epipetalous,  upon  the  corolla. 

Epiphytes,  Air  Plants,  239. 

Equisetacese,  27.  [241. 

Equitant.  riding  astride  (aestivation), 

Erica,  157. 

Eri6phorum,  270. 

Erose,  eroded,  as  if  gnawed. 

Erythrdnium,  30,  48,  -251,  257. 

Eschsch61tzia,  71. 

Etiolated,  whitened  for  want  of  light. 

Evanescent  corolla,  170. 

Evening  Primrose,  125, 168,  173,  193. 

Evergreen,  56. 


Everlastings,  147. 

Exalbuminous,  without  albumen,  186. 
Excaecaria,  207.  [193,  218. 

Excurrent  (stem),  running  to  the  top,  107, 
Exoguns,  220,  229. 
Ex6genous  structure,  108,  225. 
Exserted,  projecting  out  of  or  beyond. 
Exstipulate,  without  stipules. 
Extrorse  (anthers),  turned  outward. 


F. 


agopyram,  203. 

alcate,  scythe-shaped,  curved,  206. 

ascicle,  a  bundle,  46,  214. 


Fagopyram,  203. 

Falcate, 

Fascicle, 

Fasciculate,  in  a  bundle,  46. 

Feather-veined,  see  Piuni-veined. 

Ferruginous,  color  of  iron-rust. 

Ferns,  20. 

Fertile  (flowers),  producing  seed,  219. 

Fertilization,  see  Pollenization,  185,  216. 

Feverfue,  147. 

Fibrils,  the  last  division  of  roots,  20. 

Field  Speedwell,  170. 

Figworts,  174. 

Filament,  the  stalk  of  a  stamen,  32. 

Filbert,  213. 

Filiform,  slender  like  a  thread,  14,  260. 

Filices,  2(i. 

Fimbriate,    fringed,    having   the  border 

edged  with  slender  processes,  97. 
Fir,  218—  Douglas  Fir,  221. 
Fistular,  hollow,  as  Wheat  straw. 
Flabelliform.  fan-shaped,  225. 
Flax,  Toad,  173. 
Flax,  New  Zealand,  258. 
Fleur-de-lis  (Flur-de-ld),  241. 
Floccous,  with  hairs  in  soft  fleecy  tufts. 
Flora,  (a)  the  spontaneous  vegetation  of 

a  country  ;  (o)  a  written  description  of 

the  same. 

Floral  envelopes,  the  sepals  and  petals. 
Florets,  138,  141. 
Florets  of  the  disk,  141. 
Florets  of  the  ray,  141. 
Flowerless  Plants,  16. 
Flowers  not  made  for  man,  174. 
Flower  Region,  29. 
Flowers  regular,  73. 

Foliaceous,  leaf  -like  in  form  or  texture. 
Follicle,  a  dry,  simple  fruit.  1-celled, 

1-valved,  several-seeded,  197. 
Fool's  Parsley  187. 
Forked  carpophore,  132. 
Fork-veined.  22. 
Fox  Glove,  176. 
Fragaria,  105. 

Free,  not  adherent  to  other  organs. 
Free  Central  Placenta,  163. 
Fringed  ;  see  Fimbriate. 
Fritillaria,  258.  [21. 

Frond,  an  organ  serving  as  stem  and  leaf, 
Frntcscent,  shrubby. 
Fruit.  &3. 
Fuchsia,  129. 

Fugacious,  soon  vanishing,  18. 
Fulvous,  dull  yellowish-brown. 
Fungi,  27. 


INDEX. 


311 


Funnel-form;  see  Inf  undibiilif  orm. 
Funiculus,  the  seed-stem,  42,  56. 
Furcate,  forked. 
Fusiform,  spindle-shaped  (root). 

G. 

Galanthus,  263. 

Galbanum,  Gum,  137. 

Galeate,  the  upper  lip  or  petals  arched. 

Galingale,  263.  [143. 

Gamopetalous,   same  as  Monopetalous, 

Garlic,  258. 

Gaulthdria,  149. 

Gaylussacia,  158. 

Geminate,  twin,  two  together. 

Generic  characters,  179.  . 

Geniculate,  bent  as  the  knee  (genu). 

Genus,  pi.  Genera,  a  family  group,  18. 

Geraniacese,  97. 

Geranium,  40,  83. 

Gerardia,  176. 

Germination,  186,  277. 

Gibbous,  obliquely  tumid. 

Glabrous,  smooth,  not  hairy,  73,  134. 

Gla-di-o-lus,  244. 

Glandular,  with  glands,  secreting  organs. 

Glans,  a  nut,  as  an  acorn. 

Glaucous,  sea-green,  bluish-green,  usually 
with  a  bloom,  or  whitish  powder,  34. 

Globous,  rounded,  globular,  151. 

Glumes,  chaffy  envelopes,  265. 

Glumiferae,  the  division  (class)  which  in- 
cludes the  grass-like  orders. 

Golden  Alexanders,  134. 

Golden  Chain,  125. 

Goldenrod,  147. 

Granular,  composed  of  grains. 

Grass  Pink,  235. 

Grasses,  The,  271. 

Green  Dragon,  232. 

Green  Rose,  115. 

Ground  Ivy,  176. 

Growth  is  downward,  110. 

Gum  Arabic,  125. 

Gymnema,  the  Cow  Tree,  199. 

Gymnosperms,  with  naked  seeds,  220. 

Gynandrous,  stamens  and  pis- 
tils conjoined.    See  Column,  235. 

Gynoecium,  the  pistils  as  a  whole. 

H. 

Habit,  jhe  general  aspect  of  a  plant,  117. 
Habitat,  the  natural  locality  of  a  plant. 
Haenmnthus,  263.  * 

Hairs,  hairy,  hirsute,  104.  fl] 

Hastate,  with  the  base  lobes  abrupt-  /f\ 
ly  spreading,  as  in  a  halbert.          ^jF^ 
Hawthorn,  117. 
Hay  Fever,  32. 
Hazel,  213. 
Hearts-ease,  75. 
Heart-wood,  the  duramen,  107. 
Heather,  157. 
Heathwort,  157. 
Hedge  Mustard,  185. 
lielianthus,  147. 
Hellebore,  59,  64. 
Hemlock,  218. 


Hemp,  African,  258. 

Hepatica,  27,  55. 

Herb,  a  plant  with  an  annual  stem,  29. 

Herb  Annual,  68. 

Herb  Perennial,  46. 

Herb  Robert,  86. 

Herbaceous,  green  and  cellular ,not  woody. 

Heronsbill,  87. 

Herbarium,  a  collection  of  dried  plants. 

Hermaphrodite  (flower),  with  both  sta- 
mens and  pistils. 

Heter6gamous,  two  sorts  of  flowers  in  the 
same  head. 

Hexandrous,  with  6  stamens. 

Hilum,  the  eye  or  scar  of  a  seed. 

Hip,  114. 

Hirsute,  hairy  with  rather  long  hairs. 

Hispid,  bristly  with  stiff  hairs,  132. 

Hoarhound,  182. 

Hoary,  frost-colored,  grayish. 

Holy  Spirit  Plant,  239.     " 

Hom6gamous,  head  with  all  the  flowers 
alike,  as  to  stamens  and  pistils. 

Honey,  59. 

Honeysuckle,  173. 

Hood,  any  hood-shaped  organ,  197. 

Hooded,  see  Cucullate. 

Hood-leaved  Violet,  74. 

Hop  (Humulus),  187. 

Horns,  certain  little  projections  in  the 
Asclepias,  etc.,  197. 

Horse  Chestnut,  192. 

Horse-shoe  Geranium,  86. 

Horsetail  Rushes,  27. 

Hortus  siccus  (hort.  sic.),  an  herbarium. 

Huckleberry  (Whortleberry),  158. 

Hyacinth,  35,  238. 

Hyaline,  transparent,  or  nearly  so. 

Hybridization,  182. 

Hybrid,  a  cross-breed  between  two  species. 

Hypo  (in  composition),  un- 
der ;  as 

Hyp6gynous,  under  the 
ovary,  or  free  (sc.  sta- 
mens), 48. 

Hyp6xis,  259. 

Hyssop,  182. 


Imbricate,    Imbricated,  over- 
lapping by  both  edges.  Lily, 

Immortelles,  147. 

Inaxial  root,  50. 

Incised,  divided  deeply}  as  if  cut. 

Included,  inclosed  within,  or  shorter  than. 

Incumbent  (embryo),  100. 

Indefinite,  not  easily  counted,  47. 

Indehiscent,  not  opening. 

Indian  Cress,  95. -Cucumber,  249. 

—Soap,  195.— Turnip,  231. 
India  Rubber,  207. 
Indigenous,  native  of  a  country. 
Indigo,  125. 

Induplicate-valvate  aestivation. 
Indusium,  the  shield  covering 

the  fruit-dot  (sorus)  of  a  Fern. 
Inferior  ovary,  same  as  adherent  ovary, 

133,233. 


o 


312 


INDEX. 


Inflected  (petal),  with  the  point  bent  in- 
ward, 133. 

Inflorescence,  flower-arrangement,  41. 

Infundibuliform  corolla,  the 
tube  gradually  enlarging 
into  the  limb. 

Innate  (anther),  joined  by  its 
base  to  the  filament,  74,  267. 

Insects  as  pollen-bearers,  41,  48,  52,  GO,  80, 
82,  83,  91, 118,  128,  135,  145,  157,  163,  173, 
180,  197,  201,  235,  236,  237,  240,  243.  254. 

Inserted,  refers  to  the  point  of  junction, 
or  apparent  origin. 

Integument,  a  coat  or  covering. 

Internodes,  80,  85. 

Introrse  (anther*),  turned  inward,  41. 

Inula,  147. 

Involucre,  Involncel,  132. 

Involute,  rolled  inward. 

Irregular  flowers,  73. 

Ipomaea,  183. 

Iridacere,  Irids,  244. 

Iris,  241. 

Iron  wood,  213. 

Isatis,  103. 

Itaka,  125. 

Ivy  Geranium,  97. 

Ivy-leaved  Flax,  174. 

J. 

Jack-in-the-pulpit,  229. 

Jacobsea,  263. 

Jalap,  188. 

Jatropha,  207. 

Jewel  Weed,  93. 

Jointed,  with  joints?,  articulated,  83. 

Jonquil,  261. 

Juniperus,  223. 

Kalmia,  155. 
Keeled.    See  Carinate. 
Kino,  gum,  125. 
Knotweed,  2CO 

L. 

Labiatae,  Labiate  Plants,  182. 

Labiate  (flowers),  lip -shaped,  mouth- 
shaped,  172,  180,  182. 

Laburnum,  125. 

Lady's  Delight,  128.— Eardrops,  128.— 
Slipper,  175,  233,  240.— Thumb,  203. 

Laciniate.  slashed,  with  deep  incisions. 

Lactescent,  containing  lac,  or  milk. 

Lacustrine,  growing  in  lakes. 

Lambert  Pine,  221. 

Lamina,  the  blade  of  a  leaf. 

Lanceolate,  lance-shaped,  14. 

Lanuginous,  woolly. 

Lapsana,  91. 

Larkspur,  59,  64. 

Latex,  the  turbid  or  milky  juice  of 
plants. 

Lathyrus,  118. 

Latin  names  of  plants,  18. 

Lactiica,  147. 

Lateral,  attached  to  the  side  (style 
and  ovary),  106. 

Laurel,  The  American,  155. 

Laurel,  Cherry,  116. 


Lavandula,  Lavender,  182. 

Leaf -stalk,  petiole,  31,  etc. 

Leaf -arrangement,  193. — Compound,  58.— 
Hues  of,  190.— Modified,  120,  186,  256.— 
Radical,  47.— Shape  depends  on  the 
venation,  190.— Use  of  acrid,  50. 

Leaf  Region,  29. 

Leaf,  the  type  of  the  plant,  256. 

Leaflets,  the  pieces  of  a  compound  leaf,  53. 

Leek,  253. 

Legume,  a  simple,  dry,  1-celled,  2-valved, 
several-seeded  fruit,  118. 

Leguminosse,  Leguminous  Plants,  125. 

Lenticular,  shape  of  a  convex  lens. 

Lentils,  125. 

Leucojum,  263. 

Lettuce,  147. 

Liber,  the  inner  bark. 

Lichens,  Scale-Mosses,  16. 

Ligulate  (corolla),  strap-shaped,  142. 

Lignle,  the  stipules  of  Grasses,  271. 

Liliaceje,  Lilyworts,  257. 

Liliaceous  flower  or  corolla, 
i.  e.,  a  6- parted  perianth. 

Lilies  of  the  Field,  62. 

Lily  of  France,  241. 

Lily  of  the  Valley,  255. 

Lily,  Water,  Nymphuea,  91. 

Limb,  the  border  (sc.  of  the  flower). 

Linaria,  174. 

Linear,  long  and  narrow,  14. 

Linear-lanceolate,  14. 

Linear-subulate,  17. 

Liquorice,  125. 

Liver-leaf,  54. 

Liverworts,  He- 
paticaB,  27. 

Lobed  palmate- 

Lobedpinnately. 


Loculicidal,  opening 

into  a  cell,  253. 
Locust,  121. 
Locusta,  a  spikelet  of 

the  Grasses. 
Logwood,  124. 

Loment,  a  jointed  legume,  123. 
Loosestrife,  165.  %-g 

Lovage,  136.  m 

Lunaria,  103.  £jj) 

Lunate,  crescent-shaped.  ** 

Lychnis,  83. 
Lycopods,  27. 
Lygodium,  27. 
Lyrate,  or  Lyrate-pinnatifid,  deenly 

lobed  in  the  midst  (lyre-shaped?), 
Lysimachia,  165.  [77. 

M. 

Maculate,  spotted  or  blotched. 

Maidenhair,  27. 

Male  flowers,  staminate  flowers. 

Mallow,  83. 

Maple,  35,  93,  188,  193. 

Marescent.  withering  while  persistent. 

Marigold,  147,  246. 

Mast,  Mastworts,  213. 

Mat-grasses,  270. 

Maurandia,  176. 


INDEX. 


313 


Mayflower,  158. 

Meadow  Rue,  61. 

Medeola,  250. 

Medlar,  117. 

Medulla,  pith  ;  Medullary  rays,  107,  189. 

Membranous,  thin,  like  a  membrane. 

Mentha,  182. 

Merocarp,  one  of  the  carpels  of  a  Cremo- 
carp,  133. 

Metamorphosis,  a  transformation. 

Midrib  (obsolete)  the  same  as  midvein. 

Mid  vein,  the  central  vein  of  a  leaf,  21. 

Milkweed,  195. 

Mitriform,  formed  like  a  conical  cap. 

Mimosa,  124. 

Modified  Leaf,  120. 

Moulds,  27. 

Monos  (in  Greek  compounds),  one  ;  as 

Monadelphous,  stamens  in  one  set, 

Monandrous,  with  one  stamen.  [91. 

Monkshood,  61. 

Monocarpic  herbs,  42. 

Monocotylddonous,  with  one  seed- 
lobe,  267. 

Monoecious,  with  2  kinds  of  flowers  to- 
gether on  the  same  plant,  214,  231. 

Mon6gynous,  with  one  pistil. 

Monopetalous.    See  Garnopetalous. 

Moosewood,  192. 

Morning  Glory,  91,  118,  182. 

Mosses,  16. 

Mountain  Ash,  117. 

Mouse-ear  Everlasting,  137. 

Moving  Plant,  123. 

Mucronate,  ending  with  a  sharp,  ab- 
rupt point  (mucro),  244. 

Muhlenburg,  Henry,  50. 

Mulberry,  116. 

Mullein,  174,  177^3. 

Multi  (in  composition),  many  ;  as 

Multifid,   cut   half-way  into   many   seg- 
ments. 

Muricate,  bearing  short,  hard  points. 

Muriforrn,  like  a  wall  of  mason-work. 

Muscology,  a  treatise  on  Mosses. 

Mushroom,  27. 

Mustard,  102. 

Mustard,  Hedge,  185. 

Mycelium,  the  first,  underground  growth 
(thallus)  of  the  Fungi  or  Mushrooms. 


Naked  receptacle,  without  chaff,  139. 

Naked  seeds,  21(5. 

Narcissus,  261. 

Napiform  (root),  turnip-shaped.     •*. 

Nasturtian,  95.  <TJ 

Natant,  swimming  ;  underwater,    ^jk 

Naturalized  and  Foreign  Plants,    <r 

143,176;  'V 

Nectar,  the  sweet  secretion  of  flowers. 
Nectarine,  116.  ^_^ 

Nectary,  an  appendage  secreting    (       •) 

nectar,  47.  \\lljj 

Nepeta,  177.  \f 

Nepenthes,  161. 
Nettle,  104. 
Net-veined,  same  as  reticulate-veined,  55. 


Neutral  flower,  one  with  neither  stamens 

nor  pistils,  as  in  Hydrangea. 
New  Zealand  Flax,  258. 
Nightshade,  131. 
Nipplewort,  91. 
Node,  nodus,  a  joint,  78,  85. 
Nodding  (flower),  inclined,  like  the  Ery- 

thromum. 
Nomenclature,  the  rules  for  naming  gen  era 

and  species. 

Normal,  according  to  rule. 
Norway  Spruce,  218,  222. 
Nucleus,  the  kernel  (of  ovule  or  seed). 
Nut,  same  as  glans. 
Nutgalls,  213. 
Nutgrass,  268. 

O. 

Oak,  35,  207. 

Oats,  279.— Wild,  251. 

Ob  (in  composition)  denotes  in- 
vention •  as 

Obcordate,   inversely    heart- 
shaped. 

Oblanceolate,  inversely  lance-shaped,  47. 

Oblique,  unequal-sided,  as  an  Elm  leaf. 

Oblong,  a  broadly  linear  form. 

Obovate,  inversely  ovate,  47. 

Obsolete,  past,  or  out  of  use ; 
undeveloped,  133. 

Obtuse,  blunt  or  round  at 
apex,  35. 

Obvolute,  half  equitant,  each 
leaf  in  the  bud  embracing 
only  one  margin  of  the  other. 


Ochreae,  sheathing  stipules,  200. 

Ochroleucous,  cream-colored,  pale 
yellow. 

Octo  (in  composition),  eight ;  as 

Octandrous,  with  8  stamens. 

CEnothera,  125. 

Officinal,  for  sale  in  the  shops,  171. 

Officinal  Speedwell,  170,  176. 

Offset,  a  short  lateral  shoot. 

Onagraceae,  130. 

Onion,  258. 

Operculum,  the  lid  of  a  Moss,  14. 

Opium  Poppy,  68,  70. 

Opposing  (petals),  petals  and 
stamens  opposite,  41,  167. 

Opposite  (leaves),  two  at  a 
node.  78. 

Orbicular,  circular,  152. 

Orchard  Grass,  274. 

Orchidacese,  239. 

Orchidaceous    flower,    6- 
parted,  1-lipped. 

Orchis,  233. 

Organized,  with  mutually-re- 
lated organs,  13. 

Orontium,  232. 

Orris-root,  246. 

Orth&tropous   (ovule),   erect,  not 
bent,  214. 

Osmorhiza,  131. 

Osmund  Fern,  24. 

Osseous,  bony,  like  the  Peach  stone. 

Ostrya,  214. 


314 


ItfDEX. 


Oval,  egg-shaped  with  equal  ends.    ^ 
©vary,  32.  /^g\ 

Ovary,  adherent  and  coherent,  233.   Kpl 
Ovary  inferior,  adhering  to  the     N£^ 

calyx  tube,  233. 
Ovary  superior,  free  from      /. 

the  calyx,  110.  /{A 

Ovate,  shape  of  an  egg,  56.     (^ } 
Ovate-lanceolate,  between    ^&y 

ovate  and  lanceolate,  35.        V 
Ovoid,  egg-form,  applied  to  solids,  29,  56. 
Ovule  erect  in  the  cell ; 
ascending.         [cell. 
Ovule  suspended  in  the 
Ovule,  the  young,  im- 
mature seed. 
Oxalides,  plural  of  Oxalis,  89,  92. 


Oxycoccus,  158. 
Oxlip,  168. 


P. 


Paeony,  59,  64,  115. 

Pales,  or  palae,  the  inner  chaff  of  Grasses, 

or  of  the  Composites,  145,  274. 
Palms,  Palmaceae,  223,  226. 
Palmetto,  222.— Dwarf,  226.-Saw,  226. 
Pal  mi-veined,  or  Palmate- veined,  54. 
Pampas  Grass,  104,  280. 
Pancratium,  263. 

Panicle,  a  raceme  compounded,  272. 
Pannage,  212. 
Pansy,  41,  75. 
Papaver,  68. 
Papaveracese,  67. 

Papilionaceous,  pa-piF-yo-nft'-shus,  118. 
Pappus,  the  calyx  of  the  Composites,  139. 
Papyrus,  270. 
Parallel-veined,  31. 

Paraphyses,  in  the  flowers  of  a  Moss,  14. 
Parenchyma,  the  cellular  tissue,  225. 
Paries,  a  wall ;  Parietal,  on  the  wall,  (56. 
Parsley,  136. 
Parsnip,  136. 
Parthenium,  147. 
Partridge-berry,  146. 
Pasque  Flower,  62. 
Paulinia,  195. 
Pea,  117,  121. 
Peach,  112, 116,  120. 
Peanut,  125. 

Pear,  112,  116.  [natifld.  t 

Pectinate,  like  comb-teeth,  finely  pin-  wz 
Pedate,  shaped  like  a  bird's  foot.  gT 
Pedicel,  the  divisions  of  a  peduncle,  \cT 

14,  41.  [30,  40.  I 

Peduncle,  pe-dunk'-l.  the  flower-stalk, 
Pelargonium,  87. 
Peltate,  shield-shaped,  97, 159. 
Pendulous,  hanging,  56. 
Pennyroyal,  182. 
Pentamerous,  5-parted,  173. 
Pente  (in  composition),  five  ;  as 
Pentstemon,  174, 176. 
Pentandrous,  with  5  stamens. 
Pepo,  a  fruit  like  a  melon. 
Peppergrass,  103. 
Peppermint,  182. 

Perennial,  living  several  years,  24,  46. 
Perfect  flower  :  see  Hermaphrodite,  47. 


Perfbliate,  through  the  leaf,  251. 

Peri  (in  composition),  around;  as 

Perianth,  the  floral  envelope,  31. 

Pericarp,  the  seed-vessel.  [267. 

Perigyniuni,  the  perianth  of  a  Carex, 

Perigynous,  inserted  around 
the  ovary,  i.  e.  on  the  ca- 
lyx, 106,  184,  268. 

Peristome,  14. 

Persian  Insect  Powder,  147. 

Persica,  The  Peach,  201. 

Persistent,  remaining  long  in 
place,  33. 

Personate,  masked  :  with  lips 
closed,  173. 

Petal,  the  leaves  of  the  corolla,  31. 

Petaliferous,  bearing  petals. 

Petaloid,  resembling  petals. 

Petiolate,  borne  on  a  petiole,  54. 

Petiole,  the  leaf-stalk,  31. 

Peliolule,  the  stalk  of  the  leaflets,  37. 

Pharbitis,  187.  [229. 

j  Phenogamia,  the  Flowering  Plants,  &3, 
j  Phoenix,  228. 

Phormium,  258. 

Phyllodia,  leaves  without  a  blade. 
1  Phyllotaxy,  leaf-arrangement,  193. 

Pie  Plant,  203. 

Pigeon-wheat  Moss,  13. 
I  Pigweed,  143. 
i  Pilous,  with  erect,  thin  haire. 

Pine,  Lambert,  221.— Long-leaved,  218.— 
Norfolk  Island,  223.  —  Pitch,  217.  — 
Prince's,  152.— Red,  217.— Weymouth, 
217.— White,  214. 

Pinks,  80. 

Pinkworts,  83.  [ions  of  a  frond,  21. 

Pinna,  pi.  pinnae  (wings),  the  divis- 

Pinnate,  with  4  or  more  lateral  leaf- 
lets.—Odd  pinnate.  114. 

Pinnate,  abruptly,  with 
no  odd  leaflet. 

Pinnate,  interruptedly, 
leaflets  alternately 
smaller. 

Pinnatifid,  deeply  lobed  in  a  pinnate    &~\ 

Pin  Oak,  210.  [manner,  21. 

Pipsissewa,  152.  [32.     W 

Pistil,  the  central  organ  of  the  flower,    / 

Pistilidia,  in  the  flowers  of  a  Moss,  etc.,  14. 

Pistillate  (flower),  bearing  pistils,  138. 

Pisum,  118. 

Pitch,  Bergunda,  etc.,  223.— Pine,  215. 

Pitcher  Plant,  158. 

Pitted  tissue,  221. 

Placenta,  pi.  Placenta?,  the  cellular  part 
of  the  carpel  which  bears  the  ovules. 

Placentae    cen- 
tral, 66. 

Placentae    free 
central,  162. 

Placentae  parie- 
tal, on  the  wall, 

Plan  of  a  flower,  32. 

Plantain,  82, 143. 177. 

Plants,  Carnivorous, 
1(51  -Flowering,  33. 

— Flowerless,  16.— Food  of,  107.— Sleep 
of,  29,  91.— Tropical,  146. 


INDEX. 


315 


Pleurisy  Boot,  199. 

Plicate,  folded  like  a  fan,  183. 

Plumous,  like  a  plume  ;  leathery, 

Plumule  (a  little  plume),  111. 

Poa,  271. 

Poet's  Narcissus,  262. 

Poinciana,  125. 

Pollen,  abundance  of,  32. 

Pollenization,  curious  facts  in,  41,  60,  74, 

77  80,  82,  85,  91,  118,  128,  iar>,  145,  157, 

163,  173,  180,  197,  201,  207,  235, 

236,  237,  240,  243. 
Pollinia,  masses  of  pollen,  197. 
Poly  (in  composition),  many  ;  as 
Polyandrous,  with  many  stamens, 
Polyanthus  168,261,263.          [47. 
Polygonaceae,  203. 
Polygonum,  200. 
Polypetalous,  with  the  petals  free  and 

distinct,  142. 
Polypod  Fern,  20. 
Polytrichum,  15. 
Pome,  a  fruit  like  an  apple,  108. 
Poor-man's-weather-glass,  168. 
Poppy,  68. 
Poppy  Bee,  70. 
Poppy  worts,  67,  70. 
Portulaca,  43,  91. 
Portulacaceae,  43. 
Posterior,  next  to  the  axis. 
Potato,  Sweet,  187. 
Potentilla,  112. 

Precocious,  flowering  before  leafing. 
Premorse,  ending  abruptly,  246. 
Prickles,  distinguished  from  thorns,  114. 
Pride-of-Ohio,  161. 
Primrose,  125, 168. 
Primulace;ie,  Primworts,  161,  168. 
Prince's  Pine,  152. 
Prismatic,  shaped  like  a  prism,  3,  4,  or 

many-sided. 

Procumbent  (stem),  lying  prostrate. 
Produced,  unusually  extended. 
Proterandrous,  82. 
Proliferous,  reproducing,  as  cymes  from 

the  midst  of  a  cyme,  flowers  from  the 

midst  of  a  flower. 
Prothallus,  22. 
Provinces,  33,  43. 
Prunus,  116. 
Pteris,  27. 

Pubescent,  downy  with  short,  soft  hairs. 
Puberulent,  minutely  downv. 
Pnlsatilla,  62.  [needle. 

Punctate,  dotted,  as  if  punctured  with  a 
Purple-fringed  Orchis,  238. 
Purslanes,  43. 

Pyriform,  of  the  form  of  a  pear. 
Pyrus,  112,  117.  ^H 

Pyrola,  150.  J|hJ 

Pyxis,  a  pericarp  with  a  lid,  43,  169.  ^~? 


Quadrangular,  four-angled. 

Quality,  the  external  traits,  affecting  the 

senses,  260. 
Quamash.  258. 
Quercus,  208. 


ince,  117. 

inate,  growing  in  fives, 
incuncial  aestivation,  42, 106, 
uinque  (in  composition),  five 

R. 


Raceme,  flowers  arranged  as  hi  Cur- 
rant, 41,  201. 

Rachis,  the  axis  of  an  inflorescence, 
etc.,  24,  41. 

Radiant  Head,  flowers  all  ligulate,  144. 

Radiate  head,  the  outer  row  of  flowers 
ligulate,  145. 

Radical,  springing  from  the  root,  47,  54. 

Radicle,  the  root  end  of  the  embryo. 

Radicle  accumbent,  103.    See  Accumbent. 

Radicle  incumbent,  100.    See  Incumbent. 

Radish,  103. 

Ramial,  of  a  branch  (ramus). 

Ranunculacea?,  59,  62. 

Ranunculus,  48. 

Ran  stead,  174. 

Rape-seed  oil,  103. 

Rays  (of  the  Composites),  142. 

Rays  of  an  Umbel,  132. 

Receptacle,  where  the  florets  of  a  Com- 
posite stand,  139. 

Receptacle  chaffy,  145. 

Receptacle  naked,  139. 

Reclined,  the  leaf  in  bud  bent  over 
forward. 

Recurved,  bent  (not  rolled)  back- 
ward, 31. 

Red  Maple,  192. 

Red  Oak,  210. 

Reduplicate-valvate  aestivation, 
the  valves  with  recurved  edges. 

Reflexed,  bent  back  excessive- 
ly, 52. 

Regma,  the  fruit  of  the  Geranium, 

85. 

i  Regular,  like  parts  similar, 
73. 

Reniform,  kidney-shaped, 
73,  177. 

Repand  toothed,  126. 

Reproductive  organs, 
29. 

Resupinate,  reversed; 
upside  down,  72. 

Reticulate,  netted,  47. 

Retuse,  the  apex  broadly 
indented. 

Revolute,  rolled  backward. 

Rheum,  203. 

Rhizoma,  Rhizome,  20.  ^ 

Rhombic,  of  the  shape  of 

a  rhomb.  ""^SaT 

J  Rhododendron,  158.  C^M& 

\  Rhubarb,  203. 

Ribs,  ridges  on  the  fruit  of  the  Umbel- 
worts,  135. 

Richardia.  232. 
!  Ricinus,  206. 
I  Ringent  (corolla),  the  throat  open. 

!  Roblnia,  121. 

Robin's  Plantain,  140. 

Rock  Maple,  188. 


316 


ItfDEX. 


Root,  the  base  of  the  plant,  13, 107. 
Root,  axial  and  inaxial,  50. 
Rootlets,  divisions  of  the  root,  13. 
Root-stock,  the  rhizome. 
Rosa,  Rose,  112. 
Rosaceae,  Roseworts,  115. 
Rostrate,  beaked,  with  a  beak. 
Rosaceous  corolla,  rose-like,viz., 
with   5,  regular,    quiucuucial 


Rotate  (corolla),  mon- 
opetalous,  wheel- 
shaped,  171. 

Rubus,  116. 

Rudiment,  the  beginning  of  a  thing. 

Rugous,  wrinkled,  206. 

Rue  Anemone,  60. 

Rue,  Meadow,  60. 

Rumex,  203. 

Runner,  a  prostrate  branch,  104. 

Runcinate,  hooked  backward,  143. 

Rush,  264. 

Russcllia,  176. 

Rye,  279. 

S. 

Sabal  Palmetto,  223. 

Safflower,  246. 

Saffron,  147,  246. 

Sage,  180. 

Sagittate,  arrow-shaped,  98,  260. 

Sago  Palm,  Sagus,  228. 

Safsify,  147. 

Salver-shaped  corolla,  a  flat 
border  with  a  slender  tube, 
like  Phlox,  [fruit,  191.  A 

Samara,  a  simple,  winged    ln\ 

Sanguinaria,  64.  /Mfj 

Sapindaceae,  Sapindus,  195.  W' 

Saponaria,  83. 

Sarracenia,  158. 

Scabrous,  rough,  142,  275. 

Scales  of  the  involucre,  138 

Scale-mosses,  27. 

Scammony,  188. 

Scarious,  dry  and  translucent,  138,  244. 

Scape,  a  radical  flower-stalk,  56. 

Scape-like,  stem  with  diminished  leaves. 

Scilla,  258. 

Scientific  Names,  Use  of,  18. 

Scorpoid  raceme,  rolled  inward, 
and  unrolling  as  it  blossoms. 

Scrophulariacese,  174. 

Sea-weeds,  27. 

Secund,  turned  to  one  side,  256. 

Sections,  cuttings,  184. 

Sedges,  263. 

Seed,  importance  of,  33. 

Seed,  Composition  of,  186. 

Seed,  Life  of,  185. 

Self-heal,  179. 

Semi  (in  composition),  half  ;  as 

Semicordate,  half  cordate. 

Senegal  Gum,  125. 

Senna,  125. 

Sensitiveness,  121. 

Sensitive  Plant,  123. 

Sensivera,  Hemp,  258. 

SSpals,  the  leaves  of  the  calyx,  31. 


Septicidal,  opening  be- 
tween the  cells. 

Septif'ragal,  valves 
breaking  away  from 
the  partitions,  which 
remain  in  place,  185. 

Septum,  a  partition. 

Sequoya,  221.  i 

Sericeous,  silky.  /l 

I  Serdtiuous,  occurring  late  in  the  season. K? 
j  Serrate,  saw-edged,  104.  It 

Serrulate,  finely  saw-toothed,  14,  171.    r 

Sessile  (sitting),  having  no 
petiole  or  foot-stalk,  37. 

Seta,  plu.  setae  (bristles), 
perianth  of  the  Sedges, 

Shadberry,  116.  [270. 

Sheath,  the  petiole  of  the 
Grasses,  271. 

Sheathing  petiole,  132. 

Sheep  Poison,  157. 

Sheep  Sorrel,  203.          [274. 

Shepherd's  Purse,  98,  177, 

Shooting  Star,  161. 

Showy  Orchis,  234. 

Shrub,  a  small  (6-20  ft.),  woody  plant. 

Silene,  83. 

Silicic,  Silique   (sil-5ke), 
100,  101. 

Silk  Grass,  195. 

Silver  grain,  the  medul- 
lary rays,  107. 

Simple,  of  one  piece,  not 
compound,  13. 

Sinuate,  margin  with  round- 
ed lobes  and  sinuses. 

Siphonia,  207. 

Sisymbrium,  185. 

Silver-leaved  Maple,  192. 

Sleep  of  plants,  31,  91,  92.  [128. 

Slips,  cuttings  which  grow  when  severed, 

Snap  Dragon,  173, 175. 

Snow  Drop,  263. 

Snow  Flake,  263. 

Soapberry,  195. 

Soap  worts,  83,  195. 

Social  Flowers,  135. 

Solidago,  147. 

Solitary  inflorescence,  31. 

Solvent  trunk  or  axis,  107. 

Sorrelworts,  203. 

Sorosis,  fruit  compounded  of  an  inflores- 
cence, as  Pineapple. 

Sorus,  pi.  sori,  fruit-dots  of  Ferns,  22.     .^r 

Spadix,  a  spike  with  a  fleshy  rachis,    (A\ 

Spanish  Chestnut,  213.  [231.    \§/ 

Spathe,  the  bract  (colored)  sheathing     \f 
a  spadix,  231. 

Spatulate,  form  of  a  surgeon's  spatula,     /n 

Spearmint,  182.  Iff 

Species,  18.  tt 

Specific  Characters,  179. 

Speedwell,  170. 

Spike,  the  flowers  sessile  on  the  ra-    Jb 
chis.  % 

Spikelets,  the  peculiar  clusters  in  the    H" 
Grasses,  272.  tf* 

Spike,  Oil  of,  182.  * 

Spines,  woody  thorns,  121. 


IKDEX. 


317 


Spiral  arrangement  of  leaves,  193. 

Spiral  vessels  or  cells,  189,  225. 

Spirea,  117. 

Spores,  the  seed  of  the  Cryptogams,  14, 22. 

Sporangia,  the  vessels  containing  spores, 

Spotted  Chimaphila,  154.  [22. 

Sprekellia,  2G3. 

Spring  Beauty,  39. 

Spruce,  218. 

Spur,  a  floral  appendage,  or  nec- 
tary, 97,  235.    Columbine. 

Spurge,  Spotted,  206. 

Spurgeworts,  206. 

Squills,  258. 

Squirting  Cucumber,  95. 

Stamens,  32. 

Staminate  flower,  137. 

Standard,  or  banner,  118. 

Stapelia,  199. 

Staphylea,  195. 

Star  Grass,  258. 

Star  of  Bethlehem,  258. 

Stellaria,  80. 

Stem,  the  ascending  axis. 

Sterile  flower,  not  fruitful,  137,  191. 

Stigma  discoid— stellate. 

Stigma  plumous,  as  in 
Grasses. 

Stigma,  32. 

Stigmatic,  partaking  of 
the  stigma. 

Stings,  hollow,  poisonous  hairs,  104. 

Stipe,  the  stalk  of  the  ovary,  21. 

Stipels,  the  stipules  of  the  leaflets,  117. 

Stipitate,  on  a  stipe.  ~ 

Stipules,  small  leaves  at  base  of  the    /»A 
petiole,  always  in  pairs,  75.  \j&) 

Stolon,  a  runner.  W_ 

Stoloniferous,  producing  stolons,  137.    ° 

Storksbill,  87. 

Stoma,  mouth  (of  a  sporange),  14. 

Stomata,  mouths  in  the  cuticle  of  leaves. 

Strawberry,  104. 

Strict,  straight  and  erect. 

Striped  Maple,  192. 

Strobile,  fruit  of  the  Pines  ;  a  cone. 

Struggle  for  existence,  146. 

Style,"  the  midrllc  part  of  the  pistil,  32. 

Sub  (in  composition),  under ;  in  a  less 
degree. 

Subklngdoms,  22. 

Subulate,  awl-shaped,  17. 

Succulent,  very  juicy  and  cellular. 

Suffruticous,  partly  shrubby  (frutex,  a 
shrub),  154. 

Superior  (ovary),  ovary 
free. 

Superior  (calyx),  calyx 
adherent. 

Sugar  Maple,  188. 

Sundew,  104,161. 

Sunflower,  145,  147. 

Supe'rvolute  estivation,  183. 

Suppression,  194,  209. 

Suspended  ovule,  growing 
from  the  top  of  the  cell. 

Sntural  (dehiscence),  open- 
ing at  the  sutures. 

Suture  (sute-yur),  66, 118. 


[246. 


Swamp  Maple,  192.— Milkweed,  195. 

Sweet  Alyssum,  103.— Flag,  233.— Pea,  117. 
—Vernal  Grass,  276.— Violet,  75.— Wil- 
liam, 83. 

Symmetrical,  of  the  same  number. 

Syn  (in  composition),  together.  c^ 

Syngene'cious,  stamens  united  by  their  >Mk 
anthers,  as  in  the  Composites. 

Synonym,  103.  «9 

Sysirinchium,  244. 

T. 

Tagetes,  147. 

Tamarind,  125. 

Tannic  acid,  223. 

Tapioca,  207. 

Tap  root.    See  Axial  root. 

Taraxacum,  144. 

Tawny,  fulvous,  dull  yellowish  brown. 

Tea-berry,  147.  [seed,"  111. 

Tegmen,  "  inner  layer  of  the  coating  of  a 

Tendril,  an  appendage  for  climb- 
Teratology,  82.  [ing,  119. 

Terete  (stem),  evenly  rounded, 
cylindric,  13. 

Terminal,  placed  at  the  summit  or 
apex, 14. 

Ternate  (leaves,  or  leaflets),  in  threes,  47, 

Testa,  the  outer  coat  of  a  seed,  3^ 

Tet-ra-dyn-a-mous,  4  stamens 
longer  than  the  other  2, 100. 

Thalictrum,  59. 

Thallus,  the  cellular  body  of  a 
Lichen,  etc.,  bearing  the  fruc- 
tification. 

Thimble-berry,  116. 

Thistle,  147. 

Thorns.    See  Spines,  114, 121. 

Throat,  orifice  of  a  monopetalous  corolla. 

Thyrse,  a  dense  panicle,  as  in  Lilac,  Horse 

Tigridia,  246.  [Chestnut. 

Toad  Flax,  173. 

Tolu  gum,  1£5.  [hairs,  110. 

Tomeutous,  with    short,    dense,  woolly 

Tonga  Bean,  125. 

Toothroot  Cress,  101. 

Top-shaped,  inversely  conical. 

Torroy,  Dr.  John,  865. 

Torus,  the  basis  of  a  flower,  31. 

Trag'acanth,  125. 

Tragopdgon,  147. 

Tree,  107. 

Tri  (in  composition),  three  ;  as 

Triandrous,  having  3  stamens. 

Tricolor  (three-colored),  75. 

Trientalis,  165. 

Trifid  cut  deeply  in  3  parts. 

Trif  dliate,  with  3  leaflets. 

Trillium,  246. 

Trilliacese,  251. 

Tril-o-bate,  having  3  lobes. 

Trim-e-rous,  3-part- 
ed. 

Tripinnate,     thrice 
pinnate. 

Triquetrous,  three- 
angled,  equitant  aestiva- 
tion, 260. 

Tri-ter-nate,  thrice  ternate,  58. ' 


318 


INDEX. 


Tri-t6nia,  246. 

Tropaeolum,  97. 

Tropical  vegetation,  Luxuri- 
ance of,  146. 

Trophyworts,  97. 

Truncate,  cut  square  off,  180. 

Trunk,  the  stem  of  a  tree, 
107. 

Tryma,  a  bony  fruit,  like  the 
Hickory  nut. 

Tuber,  a  thickened,  under- 
ground stem,  as  a  potato. 

Tuberculate,  covered  with 
warts  (tubercles). 

Tuberose  (Tu-ber-ose),  263. 

Tabular  corolla,  143. 

Tule,  270. 

Tulip,  35,  258. 

Tumid,  swellei  or  inflated. 

Tunicated  (bulb),  with  the  layers  entire, 

Turnip,  103,  [34. 

Turpentine,  223. 

U. 

Umbel.  Umbellet,  59, 132. 

Umbellate,  bearing  um- 
bels. 

Umbellifera,  136, 184. 

Unarmed,  without  stings, 
thorns,  etc. 

Undershrub,  a  low  shrub. 

Undulate,  wavy. 

Unguiculate  (petal),  having  a  claw  (or 
petiole),  97. 

Uni  (in  composition),  one;  as 

Uni-valved,  with  one  valve.         .o 

Unsymmetrical,  100.  4£y*J 

Urceolate,  urn-shaped,  149. 

Utricle,  a  fruit  wilh  one  seed    \fb/tf 
loose  in  the  thiu  shell  "*^s 

Uva-ursi,  158. 

Uvularia,  252. 

V. 

Vaccinium,  148,  158. 
Vaginate  (petiole),  sheathing. 
Valvate,   opening   by   or    like 

valves,  43.  r 

Valvate  aestivation,  the  pieces 


O 


, 
meeting  edge  to  edge. 

Valves,  the  pieces  of  a  capsule, 
legume,  etc. 

Vanilla,  240. 

Varieties,  36. 

Vascular  tissue,  composed  of  vessels  and 
tubes  rather  than  cells  ;  as  the  Flower- 
ing Plants  generally. 

Vaulted,  arched  above,  as  the  upper  lip  of 
some  Labiates. 

Vegetative  Organs,  29. 

\rems,  Veinlets,  Veinulets,  21.  [22. 

Venation,  the  arrangement  of  the  veins, 

Ventral,  in  front,  opposite  the  axis. 

Venus's  Fly  Trap,  160. 


Vernal,  in  or  pertaining  to  the  Spring. 
Vernation,  arrangement  of  the  leaves 

the  bud,  24. 
Veronica,  170. 
Versatile  (anther),  85,  128. 
Vertical,    parallel    with    the 

axis,  or  up  and  clown. 
Verticils,   whorls,    179, 

193. 
Ver-tic'-il-late,  arranged 

in  verticils,  154,  165. 
Vespertine,    appearing 

in  the  evening. 
Vexillary  (aestivation),  like  that 

of  the  Pea,  118. 
Vexillum,  the  banner,  118. 
Villous,  with  long,  weak  hairs, 

102. 
Vine,  a  weak,  slender  stem,  usually 

climbing. 

Violacese,  Violetworts,  76. 
Violet,  Viola,  72,  115. 
Viscid,  viscous,  sticky. 
Vitality  of  seeds,  185. 
Vitta,  pi.  Vittse,  the  oil-tubes  in  the  fruit 

of  the  Umbelworts,  135. 

W. 

Wake  Robin,  249. 

Wall  Flower,  103. 

Water  Lily,  91. 

Watsdnia,  246. 

Wax  Plant,  199. 

Wedge-shaped,  tapering  to  the  base, 

cuneiform. 
Weymouth  Pine,  217. 
Whistle  Wood,  192. 
White  Maple,  192. 
White  Oak.  207. 
White  Pine,  214. 

Whorl,  a  circle  of  similar  organs,  154. 
Whorled,  see  Verticillate. 
Whortleberry,  158. 
Wild  Oats,  251. 
Willow,  104. 
Willow  Herb,  131. 
Wind  Fertilization,  207,  216. 
Wing-margined,  174. 
Wintergreeii,  147.  • 
Wintergreen,  Chick,  164. 
Wistaria,  117,  125. 
Wood,  the  structure  of,  107. 
Wood  Anemone,  60. 
Wood  Sorrel,  89. 
Wormwood,  147. 


Yellow  Dock,  50. 
Yucca,  258. 


Zauschneria,  131. 
Zinnia,  147. 


Y. 
Z. 


The  National  Series  of  Standard  School-Books. 

NATURAL  SCIENCE- Continued. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Porter's  First  Book  of  Chemistry, 
Porter's  Principles  of  Chemistry, 

%  The  above  are  widely  known  as  the  productions  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  scien- 
tific men  of  America.  The  extreme  simplicity  in  the  method  of  presenting  the 
science,  while  exhaustively  treated,  has  excited  universal  commendation. 

Darby's  Text-Book  of  Chemistry, 

Purely  a  Chemistry,  divesting  the  subject  of  matters  comparatively  foreign  to  it 
(such  as  heat,  light,  electricity,  etc.),  but  usually  allowed  to  engross  too  much  atten- 
tion in  ordinary  school-books. 

Gregory's  Chemistry,  (Organic  and  Inorganic,  each) 

The  science  exhaustively  treated.    For  colleges  and  medical  students. 

Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  Course, 

A  successful  effort  to  reduce  the  study  to  the  limits  of  a  single  term.  (See  page  34.) 

Steele's  Chemical  Apparatus, 

Adequate  to  the  performance  of  all  the  important  experiments. 

BOTANY. 

Thinker's  First  Lessons  in  Botany, 

For  children.  The  technical  terms  are  largely  dispensed  with  in  favor  of  an  easy 
and  familiar  style  adapted  to  the  smallest  learner. 

Wood's  Object^  Lessons  in  Botany, 
Wood's  American  Botanist  and  Florist, 
Wood's  New  Class-Book  of  Botany, 

The  standard  text-books  of  the  United  States  in  this  department.  In  style  they 
are  simple,  popular,  and  lively ;  in  arrangement,  easy  and  natural ;  in  description, 
graphic  and  strictly  exact.  The  Tables  for  Analysis  are  reduced  to  a  perfect  system. 
More  are  annually  sold  than  of  all  others  combined. 

Wood's  Plant  Record, 

A  simple  form  of  Blanks  for  recording  observations  in  the  field. 

Wood's  Botanical  Apparatus, 

A  portable  Trunk,  containing  Drying  Press,  Knife,  Trowel,  Microscope,  and 
Tweezers,  and  a  copy  of  Wood's  Plant  Record — composing  a  complete  outfit  for  the 
collector. 

Willis's  Flora  of  New  Jersey, 

"•  Catalogys  Plantamm  in  Nov<&C<zsarea  repertarum.'1'1  This  remarkable  flora 
is  of  great  interest  to  all  botanists,  and  the  Jersey  Pines  have  been  termed  u  the 
Mecca  to  which  every  young  botanist  hopes  some  day  to  make  a  pilgrimage."  This 
woikis  indispensable  to  those  botanizing  on  the  ground,  and  is  the  most  useful 
book  of  reference  ever  published  for  collectors  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  con- 
tains also  a  Botanical  Directory,  with  addresses  of  living  American  botanists. 

Young's  Familiar  Lessons, 

Combining  simplicity  of  diction  with  some  degree  of  technical  and  scientific 
knowledge  for  intermediate  classes.  Specially  adapted  for  Texas  and  the  South- 
west. 

Darby's  oouthern  Botany, 

Embracing  general  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany,  with  vegetable  products, 
aM  descriptions  of  Southern  plants,  and  a  complete  Flora  of  the  Southern  States. 


The  Nationae  Series  of  Standard  School-Books. 

NATURAL   SCIENCE—  Continued. 

WOOD'S    BOTANIES. 


from  PROP.  RICHARD  OWEN,  University  of  Indiana. 

I  am  well  pleased  with  the  evidence  of  philosophical  method  exhibited  in  tlu 
general  arrangement,  as  well  as  with  the  clearness  of  the  explanations,  the  ready 
intelligibility  of  the  analytical  tables,  and  the  illustrative  aid  furnished  by  the 
numerous  and  excellent  wood-cuts.  I  design  using  the  work  as  a  text-book  with 
my  next  class. 

from  PKIN.  B.  R.  ANDERSON,  Columbus  Union  ScJwol,  Wisconsin. 
I  have  examined  several  works  with  a  view  to  recommending  some  good  text- 
book on  Botany,  but  I  lay  them  all  aside  for  "  Wood's  Botanist  and  Florist."  The 
arrangement  of  the  book  is  in  my  opinion  excellent,  its  style  fascinating  and  attrac- 
tive, its  treatment  of  the  various  departments  of  the  science  is  thorough,  and  last, 
but  for  from  unimportant,  I  like  the  topical  form  of  the  questions  to  each  chapter 
It  seems  to  embrace  the  entire  science.  In  fact,  I  consider  it  a  complete,  attractive. 
and  exhaustive  work. 

From  M.  A.  MARSHALL,  New  Haven  High  School  Conn. 

It  has  all  the  excellencies  of  the  well-known  Class-Book  of  Botany  by  the  same 
author  in  a  smaller  book.  By  a  judicious  system  of  condensation,  the  size  of  the 
flora  is  reduced  one-half,  while  no  species  are  omitted,  and  many  new  ones  are 
added.  The  descriptions  of  species  are  very  brief,  yet  sufficient  to  identify  the 
plant,  and,  when  taken  in  connection  with  the  generic  description,  form  a  complete 
description  of  the  plant.  The  book  as  a  whole  will  suit  the  wants  of  classes  better 
than  anything  I  have  yet  seen.  The  adoption  of  the  Botanist  and  Florist  would 
not  require  the  exclusion  of  the  Class-Book  of  Botany,  as  they  are  so  arranged  that 
both  might  be  used  by  the  same  class. 

From  PROF.  G.  H.  PERKINS.  University  of  Vermont  and  State  Agricultural  Cotteqe 
I  Ciin  truly  say  that  the  more  I  examine  Wood's  Class-Book,  the  better  pleased  I 
am  with  it.  In  its  illustrations,  especially  of  particulars  not  easily  observed  by  the 
student,  and  the  clearness  and  compactness  of  its  statements,  as  well  as  in  the  ter- 
ritory its  flora  embraces,  it  appears  to  me  to  surpass  any  other  work  I  know  of. 
The  whole  science,  so  far  as  it  can  be  taught  in  a  college  course,  is  well  presented 
and  rendered  unusually  easy  of  comprehension.  The  mode  of  analysis  is  excellent, 
avoiding  as  it  does  to  a  great  extent  those  microscopic  characters  which  puzzle  the 
beginner,  and  using  those  that  are  obvious  as  far  as  possible.  I  regard  the  work  as 
a  most  admirable  one,  and  shall  adopt  it  as  a  text-book  another  year. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Pendleton's  Scientific  Agriculture, 

A  text  book  for  colleges  and  schools  ;  treats  of  the  following  topics  :  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  of  Plants:  Agricultural  Meteorology;  Soils  as  related  to  Physics; 
Chemistry  of  the  Atmosphere  ;  of  Plants  ;  of  Soils  ;  Fertilizers  and  Natural  Ma- 
nures; Animal  Nutrition,  etc.  By  E.  M.  PENDLETON,  M.  D.,  Prof,  of  Agriculture  in 
the  University  of  Georgia. 

From  President  A.  D.  WHITE,  Cornell  University. 

Dear  Sir:  I  have  examined  your  "  Text-book  of  Agricultural  Science,"  and  it 
seems  to  me  excellent  in  view  of  the  purpose  it  is  intended  to  serve.  Many  of  your 
chapters  interested  me  especially,  and  all  parts  of  the  vyork  seem  to  combine  scien- 
tific instruction  with  practical  information  in  proportions  dictated  by  sound  com- 
mon sense. 

From  President  ROBINSON,  of  Brown  University. 

It  is  scientific  in  method  as  well  as  in  matter,  comprehensive  in  plan,  natural  and 
logical  in  order,  compact  and  lucid  in  its  statements,  and  must  be  useful  both  as  a 
text-Look  in  Agricultural  colleges,  and  as  a  hand-book  for  intelligent  planters  and 
farmers. 

31 


The  National  Series  of  Standard  School-33ooks. 

NATURAL    SCIENCE. 
"FOUKTEEN  WEEKS"  IN  EACH  BEANCH, 

By  J.  DORMAN  STEELE,  A.M. 

Steele's   14  Weeks  Course  in  Chemistry  (New  Ed.) 

Steele's   14  Weeks  Course  in  Astronomy 

Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  in  Philosophy 

Steele's   14  Weeks  Course  in  Geology 

Steele's   14  Weeks  Course  in  Physiology 

Steele's   14  Weeks  Course  in  Zoology 

Our  Text-Books  in  these  studies  are,  as  a  general  thing,  dull  and  uninteresting. 
They  contain  from  400  to  GOO  pages  of  dry  facts  and  unconnected  details.  They 
abound  in  that  which  the  student  cannot  learn,  much  less  reraember.  The  papil 
commences  the  study,  i3  confused  by  the  fine  print  and  coarse  print,  and  neither 
knowing  exactly  what  to  learn  nor  what  to  hasten  over,  is  crowded  through  the 
single  term  generally  assigned  to  each  branch,  and  frequently  comes  to  the  close 
without  a  definite  and  exact  idea  of  a  single  scientific  principle. 

Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  Courses  COD  tain  only  that  which  every  well-informed 
person  should  know,  while  all  that  which  concerns  only  the  professional  scientist 
is  omitted.  The  language  is  clear,  simple,  aud  interesting,  and  the  illustrations 
bring  the  subject  within  the  range  of  home  life  and  daily  experience.  They  give 
such  of  the  general  principles  and  the  prominent  facts  as  a  pupil  can  make  famil- 
iar as  household  words  within  a  single  term.  The  type  is  large  and  open ;  there 
is  no  fine  print  to  annoy ;  the  cuts  are  copies  of  genuine  experiments  or  natural 
phenomena,  and  are  of  fine  execution. 

In  fine,  by  a  system  of  condensation  peculiarly  his  own,  the  author  reduces  each 
branch  to  the  limits  of  a  single  term  of  study,  while  sacrificing  nothing  that  is  es- 
sential, and  nothing  that  is  usually  retained  from  the  study  of  the  larger  manuals 
in  common  use.  Thus  the  student  has  rare  opportunity  to  economize  his  time,  or 
rather  to  employ  that  which  he  has  to  the  best  advantage. 

A  notable  feature  ia  the  author's  charming  u  style,"  fortified  by  an  enthusiasm 
over  his  subject  in  which  the  student  will  not  fail  to  partake.  Believing  that 
Natural  Science  is  full  of  fascination,  he  has  moulded  it  into  a  form  that  attracts 
the  attention  and  kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  the  pupil. 

The  recent  editions  contain  the  author's  "Practical  Questions"  on  a  plan  never 
before  attempted  in  scientific  text-books.  These  are  questions  as  to  the  nature 
and  cause  of  common  phenomena,  an-J  are  not  directly  answered  in  the  text,  the 
design  being  to  test  and  promote  an  intelligent  use  of  the  student's  knowledge  of 
the  foregoing  principles. 

Steele's  General  Key  to  his  Works- 

This  work  is  mainly  composed  of  Answers  to  the  Practical  Questions  and  Solu 
tio-ns  of  the  Problems  in  the  author's  celebrated  "Fourteen  Weeks  Courses  "  i: 
the  several  sciences,  with  many  hints  to  teachers,  minor  Tables,  &c.  Should  I* 
on  every  teacher's  desk. 

34 


The  National  Series  of  Standard  School-'JZoofcs. 

CLEVELAND'S   COMPENDIUMS. 


From  the  New  Englander. 
This  is  the  very  best  book  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  examined. 

From  GEORGE  B.  EMERSON,  Esq.,  Boston. 

The  Biographical  Sketches  are  just  and  discriminating;  the  selections  are  admir- 
able, and  I  have  adopted  the  work  as  a  text-book  for  my  first  class. 

From  PROF.  MOSES  COIT  TYLER,  of  the  Michigan  University. 
I  have  given  your  book  a  thorough  examination,  and  am  greatly  delighted  with 
i  ;  and  shall  have  great  pleasure  in  directing  the  attention  of  my  classes  to  a  woris 
•which  affords  so  admirable  a  bird's-eye  view  of  recent  "English  Literature." 

From  the  Saturday  Review. 

It  acquaints  the  reader  with  the  characteristic  method,  tone,  and  quality  of  all  the 
c*iief  notabilities  of  the  period,  and  will  give  the  careful  student  a  better  idea  of  the 
recent  history  of  English  Literature  than  nine  educated  Englishmen  in  ten  possess. 

From  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Revieiu,  New  York. 

This  work  is  a  transcript  of  the  best  American  mind;  a  vehicle  of  the  noblest 
American  spirit.  No  parent  who  would  introduce  his  child  to  a  knowledge  of  our 
country's  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  indoctrinate  his  heart  in  the  purest  prin- 
ciples, need  fear  to  put  this  manual  in  the  youthful  hand. 

From  REV.  C.  PEIRCE,  Principal,  West  Newton,  Mass. 

I  do  not  believe  the  work  is  to  be  found  from  which,  within  the  same  limits,  so 
much  interesting  and  valuable  information  in  regard  to  English  writers  and  English 
literature  of  every  age,  can  be  obtained;  and  it  deserves  to  find  a  place  in  all  our 
high  schools  and  academies,  as  well  as  in  every  private  library. 

From  the  Independent. 

The  work  of  selection  and  compilation— requiring  a  perfect  familiarity  with  the 
whole  ran^e  of  English  literature,  a  judgment  clear  and  impartial,  a  taste  at  once 
delicate  and  severe,"and  a  most  sensitive  regard  to  purity  of  thought  or  feeling — has 
been  better  accomplished  in  this  than  in  any  kindred  volume  with  which  we  are 
acquainted. 

POLITICAL     ECONOMY. 


Champlin's   Lessons  on    Political   Economy, 

An  improvement  on  previous  treatises,  being  shorter,  yet  containing  everything 
essential,  with  a  view  of  recent  questions  in  finance,  etc.,  which  is  not  elsewhere 
found. 

From  J.  L.  BOTHWELL,  Prin.  Public  School  No.  Ik*  Albany,  N.  Y. 

I  have  examined  Champlin's  Political  Economy  with  much  pleasure,  and  shall  be 
pleased  to  put  it  into  the  ha*  ;ls  of  my  pupils.  In  quantity  and  quality  I  think  it 
superior  to  anything  that  I  iiuve  examined. 

From  PRES.  N.  E.  COBLEIGH,  East  Tennessee  Wesleyan  University. 

An  examination  of  Champlin's  Political  Economy  has  satisfied  me  that  it  is  the 
book  I  want.  For  brevity  and  compactness,  division  of  the  subject,  and  clear  state- 
ment, and  for  appropriateness  of  treatment,  I  consider  it  a  better  text-book  than 
any  other  in  the  market. 

From  the  Evening  Mail,  New  York. 

A  new  interest  has  been  imparted  to  the  science  of  political  economy  since  we 
have  been  necessitated  to  raise  such  vast  sums  of  money  for  the  support,  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  time,  therefore,  is  favorable  for  the  introduction  of  \yorks  like  the 
above.  This  little  volume  of  two  hundred  pages  is  intended  for  beginners,  for  the 
common  school  and  academy.  It  is  intended  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  rear  a  more 
elaborate  superstructure.  There  is  nothing  in  the  principles  of  political  economy 
above  the  comprehension  of  average  scholars,  when  they  are  learly  set  forth.  This 
seems  to  have  been  done  by  President  Champlin  in  an  easy  and  graceful  in**uuer. 

37 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


